<p>The Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale, Mississippi, United States, is a museum dedicated to collecting, preserving, and providing public access to and awareness of the musical genre known as the blues. Along with holdings of significant blues-related memorabilia, the museum also exhibits and collects art portraying the blues tradition, including works by sculptor Floyd Shaman and photographer Birney Imes.</p><br>
<p>The museum is located in the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Passenger Depot, also known as Illinois Central Passenger Depot or Clarksdale Passenger Depot, which was built in 1926 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum houses many artifacts related to the blues, notably the shack where blues legend Muddy Waters purportedly lived in his youth on Stovall Plantation, near Clarksdale. The shack was restored to structural stability through the intercession of Isaac Tigrett the House of Blues owner and transported from Stovall Plantation on a tour of HoB venues before being returned to Mississippi to the museum and rebuilt inside.</p><br>
<p>There is a 2003 30-minute documentary of the same name.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, a marker was placed outside of the museum as part of the Mississippi Blues Trail.</p><br>
<p>The museum has been visited by many notable artists such as Eric Clapton and Paul Simon. The Texas-based rock band ZZ Top, especially front man Billy Gibbons, have made this museum their pet project and have raised thousands of dollars in support.</p><br>
<p>The museum also focuses on educating young people interested in learning to play musical instruments.</p><br>
<h2>Railroad building</h2><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. The museum then moved into the former railroad depot in 1999. The circa 1918 brick building served as the passenger rail depot of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad and later the freight depot of Illinois Central Railroad.</p><br>
<p>The Salt Lake City Council Hall is currently home to offices of the Utah Office of Tourism and the Utah Film Commission and is located on Capitol Hill in Salt Lake City, Utah. Built in 1864–66, the building is historically important as the Old Salt Lake City Hall or just Old City Hall from 1866 to 1894. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1975, as an emblem of  the conflicts between the governments of the Utah Territory and the United States in the 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Council Hall was originally Salt Lake City Hall, built to replace an older, smaller city hall completed just six years earlier on the eve of the Utah War, a standoff between Latter-day Saints ("Mormons") and federal troops. This small city hall was almost immediately inadequate for the growing city, so planning work on a new City Hall began by 1863.</p><br>
<p>Ground for the new hall was broken on February 8, 1864 under the direction of the prolific Salt Lake City architect William H. Folsom who was then the official architect for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Built at First South and 120 East (more on Salt Lake Citys coordinate system), sandstone for the structure was delivered from Red Butte Canyon on Utahs first chartered railroad. The well-furnished Greek revival building was completed at a cost of $70,000.</p><br>
<p>In January 1866, City Hall was dedicated by George Q. Cannon, a prominent LDS leader. Many other LDS leaders attended the dedication including Brigham Young. This is unsurprising because territorial and city politics were controlled by "The Peoples Party", which was the political organ of the LDS Church. The mayor at the time was Peoples Party member Abraham O. Smoot, the first of six mayors that would use the building. The Peoples Party would control Mayors office until 1890 when the Liberal Party (territorial non-Mormon party) gained control of city government, partially because of anti-polygamy legislation which barred many Mormon polygamists from holding office.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Six rooms on the first floor housed the mayor&#39;s office and other city departments. From 1866 until the completion of the Salt Lake City and County Building in 1894, the City Hall was the seat of Salt Lake City Government and meeting place for the Utah Territorial legislature. The Rose Room on the second floor served both as a general courtroom and the legislative floor.</p><br>
<p>The Assembly Hall was often the site of tension between Mormons, non-Mormons, and federal troops, but possibly the most dramatic event occurred in August 1874; Mayor Daniel H. Wells declared martial law from the balcony of City Hall. This was in response to US Marshal arrests of several Salt Lake City police officers in concert with taking over the polls for election of a Utah representative to congress.</p><br>
<p>After 1894 the city used the Hall as police headquarters until 1915. Following this the building was used in minor capacities by the city.</p><br>
<p>To make way for a federal office building downtown, the old City Hall was relocated to Capitol Hill in 1961. The building itself and land were donated by the city and the LDS Church to the state of Utah. The LDS Church also underwrote most of the $300,000 cost for dismantling the building exterior into 325 sandstone slabs. They were numbered and reassembling around all-new woodwork on Capitol Hill. The state paid for most landscaping, furnishing, and other peripheral work at the building&#39;s current location just south of the State Capitol. Restoration was done under the direction of architect Edward O. Anderson, and was mostly finished by 1962. The building was renamed "Council Hall."</p><br>
<p>The Hulihee Palace is located in historic Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, on Ali&#39;i Drive. The former vacation home of Hawaiian royalty, it was converted to a museum run by the Daughters of Hawaii, showcasing furniture and artifacts. It is located at 75–5718 Alii Drive, Kailua-Kona.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The palace was originally built out of lava rock by John Adams Kuakini (governor of the island of Hawaii) during the Hawaiian Kingdom. When he died in 1844 he left it to his hānai (adopted) son William Pitt Leleiohoku I, the son of Prime Minister William Pitt Kalanimoku. Leleiohoku died in the measles epidemic of 1848 and left it to his son John William Pitt Kīnaʻu, but he died young and the palace went to his mother Princess Ruth Keʻelikōlani. Ruth made Hulihee her chief residence for most of her life, but she preferred to sleep in a grass hut on the palace grounds rather than in the palace. She invited all of the reigning monarchs to vacation at Hulihee, from Kamehameha III to Liliʻuokalani. Ruth died and left the palace to her cousin and sole heir Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop.</p><br>
<p>It was later sold to King Kalākaua and Queen Kapiolani. Kalākaua renamed the palace Hikulani Hale, which means “House of the Seventh ruler,” referring to himself, the seventh monarch of the monarchy that began with King Kamehameha I. In 1885, King Kalākaua had the palace plastered over the outside to give the building a more refined appearance. After Kalākaua&#39;s death it passed to Kapiolani who left Hulihee Palace to her two nephews, Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole Piʻikoi and Prince David Kawānanakoa. In 1927 the Daughters of Hawaii, a group dedicated to preserving the cultural legacy of the Hawaiian Islands, restored Hulihee Palace and turned it into a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places listings on the island of Hawaii in 1973 as site 73000653.</p><br>
<p>The palace&#39;s walls and ceiling had slight cracks following the 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake that was centered on the Kohala coast.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>The Rotunda is a building located on The Lawn on the original grounds of the University of Virginia. Thomas Jefferson designed it to represent the "authority of nature and power of reason" and modeled it after the Pantheon in Rome. Construction began in 1822 and was completed shortly after Jeffersons death in 1826. The campus of the new university was unique in that its buildings surrounded a library  rather than a church, as was common at other universities in the English-speaking world. To many, the Rotunda symbolizes Jeffersons belief in the separation of church and education, and represents his lifelong dedication to education and architecture. The Rotunda was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966, and is part of the University of Virginia Historic District, designated in 1971.</p><br>
<p>The collegiate structure, the immediate area around it, and Jefferson&#39;s nearby home at Monticello combine to form one of only six modern man-made sites in the United States to be internationally protected and preserved as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO (the other five are the Old City of San Juan, the San Antonio Missions, Independence Hall, the Statue of Liberty, and the architectural works of Frank Lloyd Wright).</p><br>
<p>The original construction cost of the Rotunda was $57,773 ($992,792 in 2006 dollars). The building stands 77 feet (23.5 m) in both height and diameter.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Design influences</h3><br>
<p>Jeffersons design was influenced by the architectural drawings of Andrea Palladio and is an example of Palladian architecture. The direct source for Jeffersons inspiration is believed to be a drawing of the Pantheon in the 1721 Leoni translation of Palladio, which Jefferson owned and referred to during the building process. While Jefferson used the detailed measurements of the Pantheon to guide the proportions of his Rotunda, the dimensions of his building are much smaller: the interior diameter of the Pantheons dome is 143 feet, whereas the exterior diameter of Jeffersons dome is 77 feet, "being half that of the Pantheon and consequently one fourth in area, and one eighth in volume."</p><br>
<p>B. Henry Latrobe first proposed the domed central building at the head of the Lawn in a letter to Jefferson dated July 17, 1817, and Latrobes influence on the design of the Rotunda is substantial. Jeffersons Pavilion III also is based on a design drawing from Latrobe.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson also deferred to Palladio&#39;s model for significant details of the building. In a letter to Thomas Appleton, then the United States consul in Liguria, Jefferson requested pricing for "ten Corinthian capitals for columns of 32 I. diminished diam. and 8 do. half capitals of the same diam. for pilasters of 30 minutes projection from the wall, to be copied from those of the Rotunda, or Pantheon, of Rome, as represented in Palladio."</p><br>
<h3>Design and construction</h3><br>
<p>During the Marquis de Lafayettes grand tour of the United States in 1824 and 1825, the Marquis and former President James Madison dined with Thomas Jefferson in the Dome Room of the unfinished Rotunda at the universitys inaugural banquet, and Lafayette toasted Jefferson as the "Father of the University of Virginia". This moved Jefferson, and he later had the phrase inscribed on his grave. A bust of Lafayette was given to the university in 1904 by the Government of France to honor the friendship between the two men. Today it stands in the North Oval Room.</p><br>
<p>The building was constructed with slave labor.</p><br>
<p>The university being the first at which students could specialize in the field of Astronomy, Jefferson toyed with the idea of painting the interior of the Dome Room with images of the night sky to aid the students in their learning. He went so far as to begin designing a new mechanism with which students would be able to "float" through the air and study heavenly bodies from closer different viewpoints. They would also be equipped with a control to move the stars around the Dome. The idea was eventually abandoned but would have been the first planetarium in the United States. The Transit of Venus of 1882 was observed from the steps of the Rotunda, in a coordinated effort with McCormick Observatory.</p><br>
<h3>Alterations</h3><br>
<p>A structure called the Annex, also known as "New Hall," was added to the north side of the Rotunda in 1853 to provide additional classroom space needed due to overcrowding. (A rare photograph of the Annex may be viewed at the University of Virginia&#39;s online visual history collection.)</p><br>
<p>In 1895, the Rotunda was gutted by a fire that started in the Annex. University students saved what was, for them, the most important item within the Rotunda—a life-size likeness of Thomas Jefferson carved from marble that was given to the university by Alexander Galt in 1861. The students also rescued a portion of the books of the university library from the Dome Room, as well as various scientific instruments from the classrooms in the Annex.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the fire, recommended a program of rebuilding that called for the reconstruction of the Rotunda and the replacement of the lost classroom space of the Annex with a set of buildings at the south end of the Lawn. In the new design, the wooden dome was replaced with a fireproof tile dome by the Guastavino Company of New York in 1898–1899. The Rotunda was rebuilt with a modified design by Stanford White, a nationally known architect and partner in the New York City firm McKim, Mead, and White. Whereas Jeffersons Rotunda had three floors, Whites had only two, but a larger Dome Room. The Annex was not rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>In 1976 during Americas Bicentennial, Whites Rotunda interior was gutted and rebuilt, at a cost of $2.4 million, to Jeffersons original design. In the Bicentennial issue of the AIA Journal, the American Institute of Architects called Jeffersons Rotunda, Lawn, and nearby home at Monticello "the proudest achievement of American architecture in the past 200 years".</p><br>
<p>There is a plaque, on the south side of the Rotunda, listing the names of students and graduates of the university who were killed during the Civil War. Other plaques on the south side list those killed during World War I while plaques on the north side list those killed in World War II and the Korean War.</p><br>
<p>Today, doctoral students defend their dissertations in the North Oval Room, and many events (including monthly dinners for residents of the Lawn) are held inside the Dome Room. Other events are held on the steps of the Rotunda, which is also the traditional starting point for students streaking the Lawn.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, the university began an extensive construction project to repair and renovate the aging Rotunda. The first phase of the project replaced the Rotunda&#39;s copper roof. Although the engineers were several months ahead of schedule, the roof remained as unpainted copper for the graduating class of 2013. During the renovation, a nineteenth-century chemistry laboratory was found within the walls on the bottom floor featuring a chemical hearth and a sophisticated ventilation system through a series of brick tunnels. The Rotunda reopened in September 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Buildings designed by inspiration of the Rotunda and Lawn include the expansive green spaces headed by Rotunda-like buildings built at Duke University in 1892, Johns Hopkins University in 1902, the University of Illinois in 1907, Rice University in 1910, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University in 1915, the Green at the University of Delaware in 1916, Killian Court at MIT in 1916 and the "Grand Auditorium" of Tsinghua University in Beijing built in 1917. Additionally, Dallas Hall at Southern Methodist University (SMU), Hendricks Chapel at Syracuse University, Florida State University College of Law, and Grawemeyer Hall at the University of Louisville were modeled after Jefferson&#39;s Rotunda. The Sterling Divinity Quadrangle at Yale Divinity School (1932) was closely based on the Academical Village at the University of Virginia, but with the Marquand Chapel taking the place of the Rotunda.</p><br>
<p>The original campus at the University of Alabama was modeled after Jeffersons Rotunda and Lawn. The Rotunda there, completed in 1833, also contained the universitys library. However, it and most of the other public campus buildings were burned as part of Wilson&#39;s Raid during the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Washington Square, originally designated in 1682 as Southeast Square, is a 6.4 acre open-space park in Center City, Philadelphia, The southeast quadrant and one of the five original planned squares laid out on the city grid by William Penn&#39;s surveyor, Thomas Holme. It is part of both the Washington Square West and Society Hill neighborhoods. In 2005, the National Park Service took over ownership and management of Washington Square, through an easement from the City of Philadelphia. It is now part of Independence National Historical Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>By the early 18th century the square started being used as a burial ground. Originally divided into triangles by two creeks, the northwestern portion was the potters field, and the southeastern section was for the burial of Catholics. The joining of the creeks created a fishing pond, and the grounds were commonly used for grazing by neighbors cows.</p><br>
<p>In 1776, it became the final resting place for Washingtons fallen soldiers. Long mass grave trenches the width of the square were first dug along 7th and Walnut Streets, and were eventually expanded to the South side. And during the British occupation of Philadelphia in 1777, the dead from the neighboring Walnut Street Jail were also interred here. Many victims of the citys yellow fever epidemic of 1793 were interred here, and the square was also used for cattle markets and camp meetings.</p><br>
<p>The square was closed as a cemetery, and improvement efforts began in 1815, as the neighborhoods around the square were developed and became fashionable. In 1825, the park was named Washington Square in tribute to George Washington and a monument to Washington was proposed. This monument was never built but served as the seed for the eventual tribute to soldiers of the Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>The periphery of Washington Square included an area called Lawyers Row at 6th and Walnut, on the site of the former Walnut Street Prison. Around the square was also home to the citys publishing industry, including the Curtis Publishing Company, J. B. Lippincott, W. B. Saunders, Lea & Febiger, the Farm Journal, and George T. Bisel Co., law publishers, now the sole remaining publishing house on the square, with Franklin Jon Zuch serving as president since 1992. It has been located there since 1876 and still owned by the Bisel family.</p><br>
<h2>American Civil War</h2><br>
<p>Initially, the square contained monuments to those who had fought in the American Civil War. One such monument was the Washington Grays Monument. In 1954, the decision was made to remove the civil war commemorations and focus the square solely on the memory of the American Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<h2>Tomb of the Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier</h2><br>
<p>In 1954, the Washington Square Planning Committee decided that, instead of the original proposed monument to Washington, a monument to all soldiers and sailors of the Revolutionary War would be built. The monument, designated the "Tomb of the Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier", was designed by architect G. Edwin Brumbaugh and includes a bronze cast of Houdons statue of Washington as the monuments centerpiece. The Tomb includes remains which were disinterred, after archeological examination, from within the park from when it was a cemetery. The remains are that of a soldier, but it is uncertain if he was Colonial or British. An unknown number of bodies remain buried beneath the square and the surrounding area; some are still occasionally found during construction and maintenance projects.</p><br>
<h2>Moon Tree</h2><br>
<p>A sycamore Moon tree in the square, planted in 1975, was grown from seeds that had been carried to the Moon by astronaut Stuart Roosa on the Apollo 14 mission. The Moon tree died in 2009 and was replaced with a clone in 2011, which had also died as of November 2019, leaving the plaque about the Moon tree in place.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The pop-punk group The Wonder Years wrote about Washington Square in their song "Washington Square Park", from their album The Upsides.</p><br>
<p>Mundelein College was a private, independent, Roman Catholic women&#39;s college in Chicago, Illinois. Located on the edge of the Rogers Park and Edgewater neighborhoods on the far north side of the city, Mundelein College was founded and administered by the Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In 1991, Mundelein became an affiliated college of Loyola University Chicago. It has since become completely incorporated.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>On November 1, 1929, three days after the stock market crash, the official ground-breaking ceremony for Mundelein College was held. The first four floors of the skyscraper building at 6363 North Sheridan Road were already in place. Mundelein College opened its door for class registration, on September 15, 1930, only nineteen months after construction began. At the close of the colleges first academic year, on June 3, 1931, traffic was rerouted, the uniformed bands of St. Marys High School and Immaculata High School played on the front steps, and the Knights of St. Gregory escorted Cardinal George Mundelein to Mundelein College&#39;s official dedication ceremony.</p><br>
<p>Upon his placement to the position of archbishop of Chicago, Cardinal Mundelein had made the education of Catholics one of his primary goals. Meanwhile, the growth of the BVM order of sisters had outpaced the educational ability of Mount Saint Joseph, the BVM college in Dubuque, Iowa. The successful partnership between Cardinal Mundelein and the order led to a college which would exceed both their aspirations.</p><br>
<p>During the first few decades, courses covered both traditional liberal arts and practical life skills, ranging from Latin, philosophy, literature, physics, and chemistry to home economics and secretarial skills. In the 1940s the Mundelein College Skyscraper boasted one of the country&#39;s highest observatories containing a telescope and the longest Foucault pendulum in existence at the time. Clubs were a major part of student life at Mundelein. In the first decade, twenty-two clubs were created, ranging from the Stylus (writing) Club and basketball team to the Chemistry Club and International Relations. The Verse Speaking Choir worked under contract with NBC Radio and its participants included Mercedes McCambridge (1937), Academy Award and Golden Globe winner.</p><br>
<p>Upon the United States entry into World War II the Mundelein College student body participated in a variety of war effort activities. In addition to planting a victory garden near the library, Mundelein students held a jeep drive which raised funds equivalent to the cost of two United States Army Jeeps, held several blood drives, and purchased a war bond with the proceeds from their annual benefit. Mundelein College students also started the first Midwest college unit of the American Red Cross.</p><br>
<p>In 1957 Sr. Mary Ann Ida Gannon, BVM became Mundelein Colleges sixth president and Mundelein College began a new phase of development. That year 48 young sisters began their education side by side with Mundelein Colleges lay student population as part of the scholasticate program. Also that year Sr. Mary Ann Ida Gannon, BVM asked Sr. Mary Carol Frances Jegen, BVM to establish Mundelein College&#39;s first theology department.</p><br>
<p>Sr. Mary Ann Ida Gannon, BVM initiated a college wide self-study in 1962 to determine Mundelein College&#39;s continued relevance as an institution of higher academic education. The results of the self-study became the driving force for several experimental programs. Mundelein College updated its mission statement, redesigned its term system and core curriculum. In 1965, the college implemented a Degree Completion Program for women who had dropped out of college before receiving their degrees. Beginning with the academic year 1970–71, the college offered students a self-directed course of study, within a group known as "Mandala." By 1974, the Weekend College in Residence program expanded upon the idea of the Degree Completion Program by offering working women the opportunity to achieve a degree while attending college only on the weekends.</p><br>
<p>Although Mundelein College had amended their articles of incorporation in 1968 to admit men, the education and cultivation of women remained its primary focus. Mundelein College was not immune to the forces of feminism and in 1977 the seeds of an interdisciplinary womens studies program began to germinate. Over the next two years, Mundelein College held yearly conferences on women. However, it wasnt until 1983 that a Women&#39;s Studies minor was finally accepted by the college Curriculum Committee. The Peace Studies minor, inaugurated in 1989, also integrated feminist perspectives.</p><br>
<p>The decades between 1960 and 1990 also saw an increase of minority outreach at Mundelein College. In 1966, the college launched Upward Bound, a federally funded summer program to help minority high school students succeed to college. Responding to the death of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, black students at Mundelein College formed MuCUBA (Mundelein College United Black Association) to address the racial barriers which existed within the walls of the college. In 1982 Hispanic students created their own organization, Hispanics for the Advancement of Our Culture and Education (later reorganized into Latins United for Our Cultural Heritage).</p><br>
<p>Many Mundelein students embraced the spirit of activism in the 1960s and 1970s. Seven BVMs and "a busload" of students traveled to Alabama to participate in the Selma March for Civil Rights. Mundelein College&#39;s student body participated in the national wide strike protesting the expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia and the student deaths at Kent State University. Students and faculty marched from the Learning Resource Center to the Skyscraper in solidarity against the war. In November 1979, César Chávez spoke at Mundelein College during his tour around the country promoting a lettuce workers strike.</p><br>
<p>The opening of the 1980s saw Mundelein College celebrating its 50th anniversary with great fanfare. Among the dignitaries at the Golden Jubilee Dinner was Mayor Jane Byrne and highlighting the event was the appearance of Mother Teresa, recipient of the 1980 Magnificat Medal. New programs continued to enhance Mundelein&#39;s academic offerings, including courses in food management, interior architecture and design, communications, computer science, and peace studies.</p><br>
<h3>Presidents</h3><br>
<h2>Campus</h2><br>
<h3>The Skyscraper</h3><br>
<p>When new, the fourteen-story Art Deco building dominated the skyline of Chicago&#39;s far north side as building construction stalled during the Great Depression. The Skyscraper had few equals in size and style outside of Downtown Chicago (similarly designed buildings include the Palmolive Building, the Chicago Board of Trade Building, and the West Town Bank Building). Vertical lines of Indiana limestone created a visual illusion making the college appear to soar higher than its actual 198 ft.</p><br>
<p>Although the Skyscraper features abstracted foliate, sunbursts, and other geometric designs around its doors and windows, the most striking feature of the building&#39;s exterior is its guardian angels. The two towering statues at the entrance represent the angels Uriel ("Light of God") and Jophiel ("Beauty of God"). Uriel holds the book of wisdom and points to a cross in Bas-relief on the fourteenth floor. Jophiel holds the planet Earth and lifts the torch of knowledge. A photo of the sculptures is included in the Smithsonian Institute Research Information System (SIRIS), of the Renwick Gallery of American Art.</p><br>
<p>Although Chicago architect Joseph W. McCarthy is listed as the supervising architect, the building was designed by Nairne W. Fisher, from St. Cloud Minnesota. McCarthy had been Cardinal Mundeleins choice. However, after Mother Isabella Kane dismissed McCarthys Gothic Revival design, she turned to Fisher with whom she had worked before. Not only was Fishers design more modern, it was less expensive than McCarthys.</p><br>
<p>Fisher studied drafting at a Minneapolis technical school, served in a USA Army Intelligence unit which produced maps during World War I, studied briefly at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris, worked as a draftsman at lumberyards in Minnesota and South Dakota, and registered as a Minnesota architect in 1922. The designer of the "Moderne" (later known as Art Deco) Mundelein College building never graduated from college.</p><br>
<p>Originally intended to be a self-contained educational facility, the interior contained classrooms, laboratories, art and music studios, a library, an auditorium, a chapel, a cafeteria, a swimming pool, a gymnasium, reception areas and meeting rooms, and seven floors of living quarters for the BVM staff. Beginning in 1934 with the two houses east of the Skyscraper, Mundelein College began expanding. By 1991, in addition to the original skyscraper, Mundelein College owned a dormitory (Coffey Hall), the white marble mansion (Piper Hall), the Learning Resource Center (now the Sullivan Center), the Yellow House (also known as the President&#39;s House), and a residence for the BVMs (Wright Hall).</p><br>
<p>The Mundelein College Skyscraper was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>In December 2007 the City of Chicago designated the building as an official Chicago Landmark.</p><br>
<p>Starting in 2005, the Skyscraper Building went through an almost 10 year renovation process modernizing the facility while retaining much of its original deco architectural beauty. In October 2012 the building was rededicated the Mundelein Center for the Fine and Performing Arts. It currently houses the specialized facilities of the Fine and Performing Arts Department of Loyola, and now features a new café, green roof and modern thrust stage, multimedia classrooms, offices, galleries, and event spaces in addition to being the largest academic classroom building on Loyola&#39;s Lakeshore Campus.</p><br>
<h3>Residence halls</h3><br>
<p>Although Mundelein College began offering some student housing within the upper floors of the Skyscraper shortly after the college opened, the first official student residence hall was purchased in 1934. Known as Philomena Hall, the twelve-room brick building was one of two mansions separating the Skyscraper from Lake Michigan. Philomena served as a residence hall until 1959 when it was converted into a speech clinic, Student Activities Council official headquarters, and a senior smoker study hall.</p><br>
<p>In 1961, Philomena Hall was razed to make room for Mundelein College&#39;s newest dormitory, Coffey Hall. Opened for occupation in 1962, the new residence hall accommodated 208 students. Coffey Hall has since been renovated for use as department office space. In 1963, Mundelein College purchased Northland Apartments to the west of the Skyscraper. Northland Hall housed a further 250 students. Loyola University Chicago razed Northland Hall in 1992 in order to create a new campus entry.</p><br>
<h3>Libraries</h3><br>
<p>The original library was housed in room 401 of the Skyscraper building. Stocked mainly with donated books, the entire initial library collection was cataloged and shelved in only thirty days. The main book donation came from Rev. John Rothensteiner of St. Louis. The initial donation consisted of 2,000 volumes; however, he later bequeathed his entire 20,000 volume library to the college. This gift was the heart of Mundelein College&#39;s rare book collection.</p><br>
<p>Mundelein College moved its library in 1934 to the white marble mansion purchased from Albert Mussey Johnson. Reading rooms occupied the first two floors of the mansion while the former ballroom on the third floor housed the book stacks. The white marble mansion remained the colleges library until 1967. After the books were removed from the mansion, it took on multiple personalities including a student center, a coffee shop, a speech clinic (after Philomena was razed), and the Religious Studies Center. After a 2005 remodeling, the white marble mansion is currently Loyola University Chicagos Piper Hall (see below).</p><br>
<p>The crowning jewel in the fast-paced growth of the campus during the 1960s, the Learning Resource Center, built in 1967, became Mundelein College&#39;s new library. Officially dedicated in 1969, the Learning Resource Center provided Mundelein students with a science and lecture auditorium, 100-seat audiovisual room, faculty and student lounges, seminar rooms, and a rare book room. Today the Learning Resource Center serves the Loyola University Chicago community as the Sullivan Center for Student Services.</p><br>
<h2>Affiliation with Loyola University</h2><br>
<p>Enrollment in Mundelein College dropped dramatically in the 1980s. By the end of the decade, the college could no longer financially support itself. In 1991, Mundelein College became an incorporated college of neighboring Loyola University Chicago.</p><br>
<p>The ideals and values of the BVM sisters continue through the Gannon Center for Women and Leadership, established by Loyola University Chicago. The Gannon Center located in Piper Hall is home to the Gannon Scholars program (a leadership training organization for twenty female Loyola students), the Women&#39;s Studies Department, and the Women and Leadership Archives.</p><br>
<h2>Notable faculty</h2><br>
<p>Sister Jean Dolores Schmidt, BVM, chaplain of Loyola University Chicagos mens basketball team who became popular during their Final Four run in 2018</p><br>
<p>Matthew Fox</p><br>
<p>Brian Swimme</p><br>
<h2>Notable students</h2><br>
<p>Tina De Rosa, author of Paper Fish (Sociology Major)</p><br>
<p>Arlene Halko, medical physicist and gay rights activist</p><br>
<p>Joanne Marrow, clinical psychologist and feminist</p><br>
<p>Mercedes McCambridge, award-winning actress</p><br>
<p>Jane Trahey, pioneering female advertising executive</p><br>
<p>Martha M. Vertreace-Doody Chicago poet</p><br>
<p>Faneuil Hall  is a marketplace and meeting hall located near the waterfront and today&#39;s Government Center, in Boston, Massachusetts. Opened in 1742, it was the site of several speeches by Samuel Adams, James Otis, and others encouraging independence from Great Britain. It is now part of Boston National Historical Park and a well-known stop on the Freedom Trail. It is sometimes referred to as "the Cradle of Liberty", though the building and location have ties to slavery.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, Faneuil Hall was rated number 4 in "America&#39;s 25 Most Visited Tourist Sites" by Forbes Traveler.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Eighteenth century</h3><br>
<p>After the project of erecting a public market house in Boston had been discussed for some years, colonial merchant and slave trader Peter Faneuil offered, at a public meeting in 1740, to build a suitable edifice at his own cost as a gift to the town. and although a vote of thanks was passed unanimously, his offer was accepted by a majority of only seven (367 to 360). Funded in part by profits from slave trading, the building was begun in Dock Square in September of the same year. It was built by artist John Smibert in 1740–1742 in the style of an English country market, with an open ground floor serving as the market house, and an assembly room above. According to Sean Hennessey, a National Park Service spokesman, some of Boston&#39;s early slave auctions took place near Faneuil Hall.</p><br>
<p>In 1761, the hall was destroyed by fire, with nothing but the brick walls remaining. It was rebuilt by the town in 1762. In 1775, during the British occupation of Boston, it was used for a theatre.</p><br>
<h3>Nineteenth century</h3><br>
<p>In 1806, the hall was greatly expanded by Charles Bulfinch, doubling its height and width and adding a third floor. Four new bays were added, to make seven in all. The open arcades were enclosed, and the cupola was moved to the opposite end of the building. Bulfinch applied Doric brick pilasters to the lower two floors, with Ionic pilasters on the third floor. This renovation added galleries around the assembly hall and increased its height. Faneuil Hall was used for town meetings until 1822. Neighboring Quincy Market was constructed between 1824 and 1826.</p><br>
<p>Abolitionists met at the hall in the 1830s and formed the Committee of Vigilance and Safety to "take all measures that they shall deem expedient to protect the colored people of this city in the enjoyment of their lives and liberties."</p><br>
<p>Faneuil Hall was entirely rebuilt of noncombustible materials in 1898–1899.</p><br>
<h3>Twentieth and twenty-first centuries</h3><br>
<p>On October 9, 1960, the building was designated a National Historic Landmark and added to the National Register of Historic Places following the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, which placed all National Historic Landmarks in the National Register. The ground floor and basement were altered in 1979. The Hall was restored again in 1992, and in 1994 the building was designated a local Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission.</p><br>
<p>The headquarters of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts is located on the fourth floor and includes an armory, library, offices, quartermaster department, commissary, and a military museum with free admission.</p><br>
<h4>Faneuil Hall Marketplace</h4><br>
<p>Faneuil Hall is owned by the city of Boston, as is Quincy Market (commonly referred to as Faneuil Hall Marketplace), which includes three historic granite buildings—North Market, Quincy Market, and South Market—to the east of Faneuil Hall that operate as an indoor/outdoor mall and food eatery. The architect for the 1976 refurbishment and repositioning of Quincy Market was Benjamin Thompson and Associates and managed by the Rouse Company; its success in the late 1970s led to the emergence of similar marketplaces in other USA cities. It has since come under the ownership of the Ashkenazy Corp.</p><br>
<p>Faneuil Hall is not part of the festival marketplace known as Faneuil Hall Marketplace. Rather it is owned by the City of Boston and managed by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>The North and South Markets buildings are currently under study for landmark status by the Boston Landmarks Commission.</p><br>
<h2>Uses</h2><br>
<p>On Friday in early August 1890, one of the first black Republican legislators of Boston, Julius Caesar Chappelle, made a speech "At the Cradle of Liberty" in support of the Federal Elections bill that would help give Black people the right to vote. Chappelle was a Boston legislator from 1883 to 1886. The Faneuil Hall event was covered by the media in the United States, and the speech by Chappelle appeared in an August 9, 1890, article, "At the Cradle of Liberty, Enthusiastic Endorsement of the Elections Bill, Faneuil Hall again Filled with Liberty Loving Bostonians to Urge a Free Ballot and Fare Count" on the front page of The New York Age newspaper on Saturday, August 9, 1890.</p><br>
<p>On November 7, 1979, Faneuil Hall was the site of Sen. Edward M. Kennedys speech declaring his candidacy for president. On November 3, 2004, Faneuil Hall was the site of Senator John Kerrys concession speech in the 2004 presidential election.</p><br>
<p>On April 11, 2006, Governor Mitt Romney signed Massachusetts&#39; health care bill into law with a fife and drum band in Faneuil Hall before 300 ticketed guests.</p><br>
<p>On October 30, 2013, President Barack Obama delivered a defense of the Affordable Care Act from the same spot where Romney signed his state&#39;s expansion of healthcare in 2006.</p><br>
<p>On November 2, 2014, Boston Mayor Thomas Menino lay in state in Faneuil Hall following his death on October 30, 2014.</p><br>
<p>The headquarters of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts has been in Faneuil Hall since 1746, currently on the 4th floor.</p><br>
<p>It is also still used for political debates between Massachusetts candidates as well as political shows, such as The O&#39;Reilly Factor.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Faneuil is a French name, and is anglicized as or (rhyming with panel or Daniel). During the colonial era, it may have been pronounced as in funnel. At Peter Faneuil&#39;s burial, only the Faneuil family crest was displayed on his headstone; its current inscription of "P. Funel" was added much later. In his 1825 novel Lionel Lincoln, James Fenimore Cooper used eye dialect for Bostonian characters to indicate that they pronounced it Funnel Hall.</p><br>
<p>Boston area locals often use the term Faneuil to refer to the entire surrounding neighborhood, particularly as a landmark for its vibrant nightlife.</p><br>
<p>In August 2017, amid heightened media coverage of the removal of Confederate monuments and memorials, the activist group New Democracy Coalition proposed that Faneuil Halls name be changed because of Peter Faneuils participation in the slave trade. In response to the proposal, Boston mayor Marty Walsh stated: "We are not going to change the name of Faneuil Hall". Additional name change protests have followed, including activists chaining themselves to the front door and a sit-in.</p><br>
<h2>Building elements</h2><br>
<h3>Bell</h3><br>
<p>After a sixty-two year hiatus, the hall&#39;s bell began ringing again in 2007 when a stuck clapper was freed and lubricated and new bellrope attached to the bell. Its last known ringing with its clapper had been at the end of World War II in 1945 (though it had been rung several times after that with a mallet).</p><br>
<h3>Grasshopper weather vane</h3><br>
<p>The gilded grasshopper weather vane on top of the building was created by Deacon Shem Drowne in 1742. Gilded with gold leaf, it weighs 80 lb, is 4 ft long, and is believed to be modeled after that of the London Royal Exchange, itself based upon the family crest of Thomas Gresham.</p><br>
<h3>Public art and landscape artwork</h3><br>
<p>The area between the eastern end of Faneuil Hall and Congress Street is part of Boston National Historical Park. In this landscape is a nineteenth-century sculpture of Samuel Adams created by sculptor Anne Whitney. The granite plaza surface is marked for 850 ft with the approximate location of the early colonial shoreline c. 1630. The street layout and building plot plan designations from an 1820 map are shown by etched dashed lines and changes from pink granite to grey granite paving slabs. The shoreline marking artwork entitled, A Once and Future Shoreline, is made with etched silhouettes of seaweed, sea grass, fish, shells and other materials found along a high tide line.</p><br>
<p>Art within Faneuil Hall includes many paintings and sculpture busts of Revolutionary War activists, pre Civil War abolitionists, and political leaders.</p><br>
<h2>Timeline of events</h2><br>
<p>1761 – Hall burned down.</p><br>
<p>1762 – Hall rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>1767 – October 28: Petition to boycott imported goods signed.</p><br>
<p>1768 – Faneuil Hall is briefly used to quarter the newly arrived 14th Regiment during the occupation of Boston.</p><br>
<p>1773 – December 3: Meeting about tea lately arrived on the ship Eleanor; Capt. James Bruce, Samuel Adams, Jonathan Williams, and others present</p><br>
<p>1806 – Building remodelled and expanded by Charles Bulfinch</p><br>
<p>August 2, 1826 – Daniel Webster eulogizes John Adams and Thomas Jefferson</p><br>
<p>July 11, 1831 – Timothy Fuller speaks "at the request of the Suffolk Anti-Masonic Committee"</p><br>
<p>September 6, 1834 – Edward Everett eulogizes Lafayette</p><br>
<p>1837</p><br>
<p>Wendell Phillips speaks</p><br>
<p>1st Exhibition and Fair of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association</p><br>
<p>1839 – Peleg Sprague stumps for candidate William Henry Harrison</p><br>
<p>July 4, 1843 – Charles Francis Adams Sr. speaks</p><br>
<p>April 15, 1848 – Edward Everett eulogizes John Quincy Adams</p><br>
<p>May 26, 1854 – After arrest of Anthony Burns, public meeting "to secure justice for a man claimed as a slave by a Virginia kidnapper, and imprisoned in Boston Court House, in defiance of the laws of Massachusetts."</p><br>
<p>April 18, 1863 – Andrew Jackson Hamilton "of Texas" speaks "at the war meeting"</p><br>
<p>January 9, 1865 – Edward Everett speaks on "the relief of the suffering people of Savannah"</p><br>
<p>June 7, 1876 – Meeting "in favor of public parks;" Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. and others speak</p><br>
<p>August 1, 1878 – "Indignation meeting... to protest against the injury done to the freedom of the press by the conviction and imprisonment of Ezra H. Heywood"</p><br>
<p>October 29, 1887 – Eben Norton Horsford speaks on occasion of the unveiling of Anne Whitney&#39;s Leif Ericson statue (installed on Commonwealth Ave.)</p><br>
<p>August 1890 – Julius Caesar Chappelle, Republican legislator of Boston, MA (1883–1886), one of the first black legislators in the United States, makes a speech (endorsing the Federal Elections bill that would help give blacks the right to vote) that was printed in The New York Age newspaper&#39;s front-page article, "At the Cradle of Liberty" on August 9, 1890.</p><br>
<p>June 15, 1898 – James E. McCormick published a letter in the Boston Evening Transcript on June 2 which led to a June 15 meeting at Faneuil Hall, thus the founding of the American Anti-Imperialist League in opposition to the Spanish–American War as well the subsequent Filipino-American War. To note one of the league&#39;s more familiar names, Mark Twain served as vice-president from 1901 to his passing in 1910.</p><br>
<p>1903</p><br>
<p>March 4 – Frederic J. Stimson debates James F. Carey</p><br>
<p>March 19 – Protest "against the suppression of truth about the Philippines"</p><br>
<p>May 1909 – 32nd Grand Division (Order of Railroad Conductors) ORC Convention</p><br>
<p>1974 – Weathervane stolen, then returned</p><br>
<p>1992 – Building restored</p><br>
<p>2012 – Lower level and first level completely renovated by Eastern General Contractors, Inc. of Springfield, MA</p><br>
<p>Fort Matanzas National Monument  is the site where the Spanish built a fort. It was designated a United States national monument on October 15, 1924. The monument consists of a 1740 Spanish fort called Fort Matanzas, and about 100 acres  of salt marsh and barrier islands along the Matanzas River on the northern Atlantic coast of Florida. It is operated by the National Park Service in conjunction with the Castillo de San Marcos National Monument in the city of St. Augustine.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fort Matanzas was built by the Spanish in 1742 to guard Matanzas Inlet, the southern mouth of the Matanzas River, which could be used as a rear entrance to the city of St. Augustine. Such an approach avoided St. Augustines primary defense system, centered at Castillo de San Marcos. In 1740, Gov. James Oglethorpe of Georgia used the inlet to blockade St. Augustine and launch a thirty-nine-day siege. St. Augustine endured the siege, but the episode convinced the Spanish that protecting the inlet was necessary to the security of the town. Under Gov. Manuel de Montianos orders, construction of the fort began that year and was completed in 1742. Engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano, who had worked on additions to the Castillo de San Marcos, designed the fortified observation tower. Convicts, slaves, and troops from Cuba were used as labor to erect the structure, which was sited on present-day Rattlesnake Island and had a commanding position over Matanzas Inlet.</p><br>
<p>The fort, known to the Spanish as Torre de Matanzas (Matanzas Tower), is a masonry structure made of coquina, a common shellstone building material in the area. The marshy terrain was stabilized by a foundation of pine pilings to accommodate a building 50 ft long on each side with a 30 ft high tower. The standard garrison of the fort was one officer in charge, four infantrymen, and two gunners, though more troops could be stationed if necessary. All soldiers at Fort Matanzas served on rotation from their regular duty in St. Augustine. Five cannon were placed at the fort—four six-pounders and one eighteen-pounder. All guns could reach the inlet, which at the time was less than half a mile away.</p><br>
<p>In 1742, as the fort was nearing completion, the British under Oglethorpe approached the inlet with twelve ships. Cannon fire drove off the scouting boats, and the warships left without engaging the fort. This brief encounter was the only time Fort Matanzas fired on an enemy. Spain lost control of Florida with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, and regained control with the 1783 Treaty of Paris. With the Spanish Empire falling apart, Spain spent little effort maintaining the fort after this time. When the United States took control of Florida in 1821, the fort had deteriorated to the point where soldiers could not live inside. The United States never used the fort and it became a ruin.</p><br>
<p>Fort Matanzas was named for the inlet, which acquired its name after the executions, or matanzas (Spanish: slaughters), on its north shore, of Jean Ribault and his band of Huguenot Frenchmen, the last of the Fort Caroline colonists, by the Spanish in 1565.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration and modern use</h2><br>
<p>In 1916, the U.S Department of War began a major restoration of the badly deteriorated fort. By 1924, three vertical fissures in the wall were repaired and the structure was stabilized; in the same year, National Monument status was proclaimed. Fort Matanzas was transferred from the War Department to the National Park Service on August 10, 1933. As a historic area under the Park Service, the National Monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Headquarters and Visitor Center</h2><br>
<p>The Fort Matanzas National Monument Headquarters and Visitor Center, located at 8635 A1A about 15 mi south of St. Augustine, Florida, was built in 1936. Located on Anastasia Island, it services the Fort Matanzas National Monument, a five-minute boat ride away. It was designed by the National Park Service&#39;s Eastern Div. of Plans & Design in what is called National Park Service Rustic architectural style, and includes a museum. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008. The listing included two contributing buildings and one contributing site on 17.3 acre.</p><br>
<p>The main building is a two-story building with an arched walk-through breezeway that serves as the visitor center and includes a ranger residence as well. The walls of its first floor are made of coquina block masonry, and the second floor is wood framed with wood siding. It has a hipped roof.</p><br>
<p>The one-story second building, 50 ft to the north, is also hip-roofed and has coquina walls. It is a utility building that now serves as a ranger office.</p><br>
<p>Visitors wait at the center to take a five-minute boat ride to the historic Fort Matanzas, which is located across Matanzas Inlet on Rattlesnake Island.</p><br>
<p>The buildings and the surrounding landscaping was designed by architects of the Eastern Division Branch of Plans and Design of the National Park Service.</p><br>
<p>Additional designed features include flagstone walkways and sidewalks, an exterior staircase, a retaining wall, parking areas and roads and curbs.</p><br>
<p>Ft. Matanzas 1937.jpgSentry Box on barbazan, Fort Matanzas, 1937</p><br>
<p>Fort Mantanzas.JPGFort Matanzas in the distance</p><br>
<p>Map of Fort Matanzas National Monument.pngMap showing strategic location of Fort Matanzas</p><br>
<p>Fort Matanzas visitor center3.jpgVisitor center</p><br>
<p>View of Fort Matanzas from the fort%27s ferry.jpgThe fort seen from a ferry</p><br>
<p>View of the roof of Fort Matanzas.jpgRoof</p><br>
<p>Fort_Matanzas gun deck, showing 3 pounder gun-2.jpgGun deck, showing 3-pounder gun</p><br>
<p>Fort Matanzas inside01.jpgInterior</p><br>
<p>Fort Matanzas river view-2.jpgView from the Matanzas River</p><br>
<p>Strathmore, or Strathmore "By the Park" Subdivision, is a neighborhood in the southwest of Syracuse, New York, United States. It is a mostly residential neighborhood that has many houses from the early and middle of the twentieth century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The subdivision was planned by 1917 and developed in 1919 by Clark & Porter, Inc. Marketing materials stated "...no smoke, no dirt, no fogs, no two-family or apartment houses, no business places of any kind, nothing but homes." An extension of the middle class and upper middle class Summit Avenue residential neighborhood on the other side of Onondaga Park and Hiawatha Lake, Strathmore was marketed as "an exclusive residential district" when it officially opened on September 27, 1919. It attracted solidly middle class and upper middle class residents into various enclaves such as Robineau Road. The original advertisement flyer proclaimed "There can be no cheap homes in Strathmore by the Park", referring to Onondaga Park. Strathmore was zoned strictly residential, allowing for only single-family and two-family homes with a garage. It also contains many rental properties in the "less greater" section past Summit Ave.</p><br>
<p>Today, the neighborhood remains desirable and attracts a diverse, solidly middle and upper middle class population of white collar, academic, and creative class professionals. Strathmore is characterized by its Garden City town planning principles, bucolic tree-lined streets, and residential architecture of well-built Colonial Revival, Georgian, Federal, Norman French, Tudor, and Arts and Crafts style homes. During the annual Strathmore House Tour, five renovated houses are open to the public. In 1987, Onondaga Park became an official Syracuse Historic Preservation District.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2006. Strathmore homes designed by Ward Wellington Ward which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places are:</p><br>
<p>Clark House, 105 Strathmore Drive</p><br>
<p>Dunfee House, 206 Summit Avenue</p><br>
<p>Fairchild House, 111 Clairmont Ave</p><br>
<p>Hunziker House, 265 Robineau Road</p><br>
<p>Porter House, 106 Strathmore Drive</p><br>
<p>Sanford House, 211 Summit Ave</p><br>
<p>Stowell House, 225 Robineau Road</p><br>
<p>White House, 176 Robineau Road</p><br>
<p>Other listings on the National Register of Historic Places are the Huntley Apartments, Onondaga Highlands-Swaneola Heights Historic District, Onondaga Park, and Strathmore "By the Park" Subdivision.</p><br>
<p>Fort Clatsop was the encampment of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in the Oregon Country near the mouth of the Columbia River during the winter of 1805–1806. Located along the Lewis and Clark River at the north end of the Clatsop Plains approximately 5 mi southwest of Astoria, the fort was the last encampment of the Corps of Discovery, before embarking on their return trip east to St. Louis.</p><br>
<p>The Lewis and Clark Expedition wintered at Fort Clatsop before returning east to St. Louis in the spring of 1806. It took just over three weeks for the Expedition to build the fort, and it served as their camp from December 8, 1805 until their departure on March 23, 1806.</p><br>
<p>The site is now protected as part of the Lewis and Clark National Historical Park, part of which was formerly known as Fort Clatsop National Memorial until 2004. The original Fort Clatsop decayed in the wet climate of the region but was reconstructed for the sesquicentennial in 1955 from sketches in the journals of William Clark. The replica lasted for fifty years, but was severely damaged by fire in early October 2005, weeks before Fort Clatsop&#39;s bicentennial. A new replica, more rustic and rough-hewn, was built by about 700 volunteers in 2006; it opened with a dedication ceremony that took place on December 9. The site is currently operated by the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>In 1803, Thomas Jefferson completed the Louisiana Purchase from France. As much of the area had not been explored by Europeans, Jefferson commissioned an expedition to be led by his secretary, Meriwether Lewis, along with William Clark. Jefferson set a number of goals for the expedition, most notably to determine what the land contained, including plants, animals, and natural resources. Jefferson also wanted to establish good relations with the Native Americans of the area. Additionally, Jefferson was very interested in finding a water route to the Pacific Ocean, which would have cut the travel time from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean considerably.</p><br>
<h2>Locating and building the fort</h2><br>
<p>In late November 1805, after spending a number of days in what is today the state of Washington, Lewis and Clark proposed that the Corps of Discovery move to a location along the Columbia River, based on a recommendation of the local Clatsop Indians. The group decided to vote on the matter, with everyone, including the young Native American woman Sacagawea and African American slave York, participating. The group was given three choices: stay on the Washington side of the Columbia River, and be subjected to diets of fish and rainy weather, move upriver, or take the advice of the Clatsop Indians and explore the area to the south of the River. The expedition overwhelmingly decided to take the advice of the local Indians to explore the idea of spending the winter on the southern shore of the River.</p><br>
<p>Lewis decided to explore the area before moving the entire group. He and five men left to scout the area, leaving Clark and the rest of the group behind. Lewis became frustrated when he could not find the abundant elk that the Clatsop had talked about. In the meantime, Clark had not heard from his companion in a number of days and became increasingly worried. During Lewis&#39; absence, the group performed a number of housekeeping tasks, including fixing their clothes from the wear they had suffered during the long and arduous journey.</p><br>
<p>Finally, Lewis returned with the news that he had found an adequate location in which to winter. On December 7, 1805, the Corps of Discovery began the short journey to the location chosen by Lewis. Upon arrival, the men split into different groups: Clark led a party to the Pacific Ocean in search of salt, while Lewis split the remaining men into two groups. One group was in charge of hunting, while the other was in charge of cutting down trees to be used in the construction of the fort.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the fort was slow, due to the incessant precipitation and unyielding wind that made working conditions less than ideal. On December 23, people started to move into the dwelling, even though it didn&#39;t yet have a roof. The next day, Christmas Eve, everyone moved in. On Christmas Day it was named "Fort Clatsop" in reference to the local Indian tribe.</p><br>
<p>The structures of Fort Clatsop were relatively simple, consisting of two buildings surrounded by large walls. All of the men lived in one structure, while Lewis, Clark, Sacagawea, her husband Toussaint Charbonneau, and their son, Jean Baptiste, stayed in the other.</p><br>
<h2>Winter activities</h2><br>
<p>The winter of 1805–1806 was very long and rainy, leading to boredom and restlessness for the Corps of Discovery. They passed the time with various activities, including hunting the abundant deer and elk in the region. The deer and elk meat spoiled quickly, but the skins were used to make clothing and moccasins. Realizing the importance of their trip, Lewis spent most of his time at Fort Clatsop documenting the journey, taking notes on the wildlife, terrain, and other features. Lewis also made maps of the area, which would be especially helpful to future settlers of the Pacific Northwest. Finally, Lewis and Clark occasionally traded with the Clatsop Indians, a tribe they had come to dislike, viewing them as untrustworthy and prone to theft.</p><br>
<p>Ultimately, the group&#39;s time along the Columbia River merely served as a place to spend the winter and recoup. The men were suffering from a number of different illnesses and conditions, including venereal diseases and respiratory problems, and felt that departing would make them all feel better.</p><br>
<h2>Departure</h2><br>
<p>Toward the end of the monotonous winter they spent at Fort Clatsop, the men were desperate to return east. Everyone was sick and quite restless, and the steady diet of elk was becoming unbearable. Moreover, even the elk were becoming more difficult to find. Originally, Meriwether Lewis determined the departure date would be April 1, but it was later moved up to March 20. Ultimately, they didn&#39;t leave until two days after that due to poor weather.</p><br>
<p>In order to travel back up the Columbia and reach the mountains, the group was desperately in need of canoes. The Clatsops had a number of them, but refused to trade with Lewis and Clark. Eventually, an agreement was reached for one canoe, but Lewis decided they had no choice but to steal a second one, since they couldn&#39;t all travel without at least two boats.</p><br>
<p>On March 22, the Corps of Discovery began the long journey back to St. Louis. Lewis decided not to send any of the men back with a copy of his notes by sea, as was usually customary, because of the small number of people in the group. Instead, Lewis decided that the group would travel two different routes, in order to see as much of the territory as possible on the way back to St. Louis.</p><br>
<h2>Later use</h2><br>
<p>As a parting gift, Lewis gave Fort Clatsop to Coboway, the chief of the Clatsops. Lewis and Clark had no use for the fort, as they were returning east with no plans to revisit the fort in the near future. Because of the heavy rainfall of the region, the original Fort Clatsop had rotted away by the middle of the 19th century.</p><br>
<p>The Clatsops used the fort as a useful base for security and other purposes, though they did strip away part of the wood for other uses. The area soon became a very important site for the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest. The location of the fort near the Pacific Ocean and the Columbia River made it a natural site for the fur trade, which expanded rapidly in the years after Lewis and Clark left. Numerous fur trading companies, including the American Fur Company and the Hudson&#39;s Bay Company, constructed headquarters in the region.</p><br>
<p>Since then, there have been two reconstruction efforts. The first, in 1955, lasted for 50 years until a fire destroyed the entire structure in the late evening of October 3, 2005. Federal, state, and community officials immediately pledged to rebuild it. A 9-1-1 operators insistence that the fire was no more than fog over the nearby Lewis and Clark River delayed firefighters’ arrival by about 15 minutes, possibly impacting their ability to save part of the structure. Investigators found no evidence of arson. The fire started in one of the enlisted mens quarters, where earlier in the day there had been an open hearth fire burning. It took 18 months to build the 1955 reconstruction, much longer than the 3.5 weeks it took to build the original. Shortly after the fire, a second replica was built and finished in 2006. In spite of the loss, the fire renewed archaeological interest in the site, as excavations had not been possible while the replica was standing. Additionally, the new replica was built utilizing information on the original fort that was not available for the 1955 replica. The 2006 replica also features a fire detection system.</p><br>
<p>The replica of the fort isn&#39;t in the exact location of the original, as no remains of the original fort have been found. However, it is thought to be quite close to the exact location.</p><br>
<p>Lacledes Landing, colloquially "the Landing", is a small urban historic district in St. Louis, Missouri. It marks the northern part of the original settlement founded by the Frenchman Pierre Laclède, whose landing on the riverside the placename commemorates. Originally he tasked his 14-year-old stepson, Auguste Chouteau, with the task of preparing the land that sat 10 miles south of the Mississippi-Missouri area. A stone house was erected and named Lacledes home in the village he named "St. Louis" as a homage to King Louis IX of France. Initially, fur trade and trapping was the economic interest that would spark Pierre&#39;s interest in using the landing and making his stepson the richest citizen. The area is now decorated with 19th century warehouses and other period buildings.</p><br>
<p>Located just north of Gateway Arch National Park (separated by the overland spans of the Eads Bridge) on the Mississippi River front, the Landing is a collection of cobblestone streets and vintage brick-and-cast-iron warehouses dating from 1850 through 1900, now converted into shops, restaurants, and bars. The district is the only remaining section of St. Louis&#39; 19th-century commercial riverfront.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Lacledes Landing has many cobblestone streets. It is adjacent to the Eads Bridge, and Interstate 44 (I-44 does not run over the Eads Bridge). On the Eads Bridge there is the Arch-Lacledes Landing MetroLink Stop. Lacledes Landing once housed Metros (the local transit agency) headquarters.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Alternative rock band Wilco mentions the Landing in "Heavy Metal Drummer", a song on the 2002 album, Yankee Hotel Foxtrot. Although now based in Chicago, Wilco was initially based in St. Louis and cut their teeth in rock clubs in and around the Landing. Frontman Jeff Tweedy grew up in nearby Belleville, Illinois.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral of Learning is a 42-story skyscraper that serves as the centerpiece of the University of Pittsburgh&#39;s  main campus in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Standing at 535 ft, the 42-story Late Gothic Revival Cathedral is the tallest educational building in the Western Hemisphere and the second-tallest university building  in the world, after the main building of Moscow State University. It is also the second-tallest gothic-styled building in the world, after the Woolworth Building in Manhattan. The Cathedral of Learning was commissioned in 1921 and ground was broken in 1926 under general contractor Stone & Webster. The first class was held in the building in 1931 and its exterior finished in October 1934, prior to its formal dedication in June 1937. It is a Pittsburgh landmark</p><br>
<p>Colloquially referred to as "Cathy" by Pitt students, the Cathedral of Learning is a steel-frame structure overlaid with Indiana limestone and contains more than 2,000 rooms and windows. It functions as a primary classroom and administrative center of the university, and is home to the Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Social Work, and many of its departments, as well as the Frederick Honors College. It houses many specialty spaces, including a studio theater, food court, study lounges, offices, computer and language labs, 31 Nationality Rooms, and a half-acre (2000 m, 22,000 ft), 4-story-high, vaulted, gothic study and event hall. The building contains noted examples of stained glass, stone, wood, and iron work and is often used by the university in photographs, postcards, and other advertisements.</p><br>
<h2>Use</h2><br>
<p>The basement and floors up to (and including) floor 40 are used for educational purposes, although most floors above 36 house the buildings mechanical equipment. These floors include theaters, computer laboratories, language laboratories, classrooms, and departmental offices. The basement contains a black box theater and the ground floor contains computer labs, language labs, classrooms, and the Cathedral Café food court. The lobby, comprising the first through third floors, contains a massive gothic Commons Room that is used as a general study area and for special events and is ringed by three floors of classrooms, including, on the first and third floors, the 31 Nationality Rooms designed by members of Pittsburghs ethnic communities in the styles of different nations and ethnic groups. Twenty-nine of these serve as functional classrooms while more conventional classrooms are located on the second floor and elsewhere throughout the building. The first floor also serves as home to the offices of the Chancellor, Executive Vice Chancellor, and other administration offices, as well as the Nationality Rooms Gift Shop. The fourth floor, which was previously home to the main stacks of the universitys library and the McCarl Center for Nontraditional Student Success, now houses a mix of interdisciplinary studies programs. The fifth floor originally housed the main borrowing, reference, and reading rooms of the university library, and now houses the Department of English. The Pitt Humanities Center is housed on the sixth floor. The Universitys Federick Honors College is located on the 35th and 36th floors.</p><br>
<p>The Cathedral of Learning houses the Department of Philosophy, considered one of the top five in the United States, and the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, consistently ranked at the top of the field. Other departments in the Cathedral include English, Religious Studies, Theatre Arts, and the School of Social Work which maintains the highest classrooms in the building located on the 23rd floor. Floors 38–40 are closed to the general public, as they contain electrical wiring for the building, as well as the Babcock Room, a large conference room on the 40th floor used for meetings, seminars, and special events and which provides a panoramic view of downtown Pittsburgh and the rest of the university. The 40th floor balcony also houses a nesting pair of Peregrine falcons. A view from the top is available via a webcam. Golden lights, dubbed "victory lights," surround the outside of the highest floors and are lit following Pitt football wins and other notable victories, giving the upper part of the cathedral an amber glow.</p><br>
<p>The top of the building serves as the site for the transmitter of the student-run radio station WPTS-FM as well as the amateur radio repeater W3YJ which is run by the Panther Amateur Radio club on a frequency of 443.45 MHz.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1921, John Gabbert Bowman became the tenth chancellor of the university. At that time, the school consisted of a series of buildings constructed along Henry Hornbostel&#39;s plan for the campus and included "temporary" wooden structures built during World War I. He then began to envision a "tall building", that would be later termed the Cathedral of Learning, to provide a dramatic symbol of education for the city and alleviate overcrowding by adding much needed space in order to meet present and future needs of the university.</p><br>
<p>His reasoning is summarized in this quote:</p><br>
<p>Bowman looked at a 14 acre plot of land named Frick Acres. On November 26, 1921, with aid from the Mellon family, the university was given the $2.5 million plot, and began plans for a proper university building on the site.</p><br>
<p>One of the foremost Gothic architects of the time, Philadelphian Charles Klauder, was hired to design the tower. The design took two years to finish, with the final plan attempting to fuse the idea of a modern skyscraper with the tradition and ideals of Gothic architecture. The plans received strong resistance from the community and from some university officials, who felt it was too tall for the city.</p><br>
<p>Local legend states that to counteract this resistance, Bowman ordered that the construction of the walls would start at the top floor and work its way down, so the project could not be canceled. This has been traced to an account on November 21, 1943, issue of At Ease, a tabloid related to local military personnel on campus, which stated that "the masonry was started from the top downward." Construction photographs show that this was not the case, and that some stonework was done on the first floor before any other stonework was begun. One engineer with the company working on the Cathedral explained that the exterior walls of the cathedral are not load-bearing. Because of this, many similar buildings would start construction at the third or fourth floors. Practically, this makes sense, as it allows easy movement of building materials and equipment into and out of the building. Instead, in the cathedral&#39;s case, the issue was one of the stone that would be used in lower stories. In fact, the quarry was not prepared to deliver the stone on schedule, so construction was delayed, and work began on the higher stories.</p><br>
<p>When construction started on the Cathedral of Learning in 1926, it was the tallest building in Pittsburgh, although the Gulf Tower (1932) was completed and surpassed it by the time the Cathedral of Learning was officially dedicated in June 1937. Today, it remains the tallest educational building in the Western hemisphere, the second tallest university building in the world behind the 36 story, 240 m (including a 57 m spire) Moscow State University main building completed in 1953, and Spiral Towers (170 m), both completed in 2008 and located in Japan.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>On July 26, 1940, as World War II was starting, a bomb threat was made against the structure with extra guards being posted to secure it and the authorities not ruling out possible wartime sabotage.</p><br>
<p>During the war effort, the cathedral was assigned to house, feed and instruct roughly 1,000 of the Army Air Corps (forerunner of today&#39;s USA Air Force) as well as dozens of Army engineers. The building had at least 12 floors dedicated for military use from 1943 until 1945.</p><br>
<h2>Funding</h2><br>
<p>Fundraising for this project came in many forms, including donations from industries, corporations, individuals and foreign governments. To raise public views of the cathedral, and at the same time finance the construction, Bowman started a fundraising campaign in 1925.</p><br>
<p>An important part of this campaign was a project reaching out to the children of the city entitled "Buy a Brick for Pitt". Each schoolchild sent a dime ($0.10) and a letter to the university, explaining how they earned the dime for the building. In exchange, the child received a certificate for one brick contained in the cathedral. A total of 97,000 certificates were issued to children.</p><br>
<h2>Commons Room</h2><br>
<p>The main part of the cathedral&#39;s first floor, the Commons Room, called one of the "great architectural fantasies of the twentieth century", is a fifteenth-century English perpendicular Gothic-style hall that covers half an acre (2,000 m) and extends upward four stories, reaching 52 ft tall. The room was a gift of Andrew Mellon. It is a piece of true Gothic architecture; no steel supports were used in the construction of its arches. Each arch is a true arch, and they support their own weight. Each base for the arches weighs five tons, and it is said that they are so firmly placed that each could hold a large truck. The large central piers act only as screens for the structural steel that holds up the upper floors of the building.</p><br>
<p>Despite its heavy use, the Commons Room is kept quiet by the use of Guastavino acoustical tiles as the stones between the ribs of vaulting.</p><br>
<p>Klauder considered the Commons Room to be his greatest achievement.</p><br>
<p>Joseph Gattoni designed the stonework, much of which depicts western Pennsylvanian plant life. The walls are made of Indiana limestone and the floor is green Vermont slate.</p><br>
<p>The wrought iron in the room, including the large gates leading to the elevators, was a gift from George Hubbard Clapp and was designed by the ironworker Samuel Yellin. Over the gates are two lines by Robert Bridges, from an untitled poem:</p><br>
<p>Here is eternal spring; for you the very stars of heaven are new.</p><br>
<p>Also located in the corridors surrounding the Commons Room are plaques featuring calligraphy designed and hand-cut in slate by Edward Catich, including one featuring a poem by Lawrence Lee titled "The Cathedral," as well as stained glass windows by Charles Connick.</p><br>
<h2>Nationality Rooms</h2><br>
<p>The cathedral is home to 31 Nationality Rooms located on the first and third floors: 29 working classrooms and two rooms used mostly for display or occasional special events. Each nationality room is designed to celebrate a different culture that had an influence on Pittsburghs growth, depicting an era prior to (or in the singular case of the French Classroom, just after) 1787, the year of the universitys founding and of the signing of the USA Constitution.</p><br>
<p>The Nationality Room programs began in 1926 when Bowman decided that he wanted to involve the community as much as he could in constructing the cathedral, so he proposed that each nationality that had a significant number of people in Pittsburgh would be allowed to design their nationality&#39;s room for the cathedral. Each group had to form a Room Committee responsible for all fundraising, designing, and acquisition. The university provided only the room and, upon completion, upkeep for perpetuity. All other materials, labor, and design were provided by the individual committees. These were sometimes aided by foreign governments and the rooms contain many authentic artifacts and materials from the country represented. A typical room on the 1st floor (those built between 1938 and 1957) took between three and ten years to complete and cost the equivalent of US$300,000 in 2006 dollars. More recent rooms have cost in the range of $750,000 and up.</p><br>
<h3>Classrooms</h3><br>
<h3>Proposed rooms</h3><br>
<p>There are six nationality rooms in various stages of planning to add to the current 31.</p><br>
<h2>Other notable spaces</h2><br>
<p>There are several other notable facilities and rooms within the Cathedral of Learning. In addition, these spaces do not fall under the auspices of the Nationality Rooms program.</p><br>
<h3>Babcock Room</h3><br>
<p>The Edward V. Babcock Memorial Room is a plush, carpeted, wood-paneled conference room constructed on the 40th floor for use as the university trustees boardroom. Funded by a Babcock family grant of $327,000 ($ in dollars) and dedicated in November 1958, The rooms square shape is modified by four alcoves, in one of which is a portrait of Babcock by Malcolm Stevens Parcell. The walls, featuring intricate geometric patterns, are paneled in Appalachian white oak with burled walnut inlays and touches of rosewood. The windows, adorned by leaf-patterned curtains, boast a spectacular panoramic view of the surrounding area. The room is also adjoined by a kitchen. Access to the room is limited to a spiral staircase and an elevator, both requiring a key, that originate on the 36th floor. During the early 1970s at the height of student activism, a group of protesting students attempted to barricade the room during a trustees meeting. Today, the trustees have outgrown the room and generally meet in the Assembly Room of the William Pitt Union. The Babcock room now serves as a seminar and meeting room and is also used for special events. A pair of peregrine falcons nests on the balcony outside the room.</p><br>
<h3>Braun Room</h3><br>
<p>Following the opening of the Cathedral of Learning, the offices of the Dean of Women moved to the 12th floor of the Cathedral in 1938. The interior was unfinished but Dean Thyrsa Amos envisioned a dignified and beautiful space for women to meet.</p><br>
<p>When Dean Amos died in 1941, the new quarters were still unfinished. The Alumnae Association created the Thyrsa W. Amos Fund to plaster the walls and to furnish Room 1217 in her name. Room 1217 was never finished, but after World War II the other rooms on the twelfth floor were completed including room 1201, now known as the Braun Room. Mrs. A. E. Braun donated the furnishings and floral carved mahogany wood paneling which she had purchased in 1941 from the library of the home of Grant McCargo in the East End of Pittsburgh. The Braun Room was dedicated in 1946 and serves, along with its furniture, as an example of a modern reproduction of Louis XV design. Original blue carpeting was replaced in 1955 with a Persian rug, named "The Iron Rug of Persia", that was donated by the daughter and son-in-law of A. E. Braun. Restored in 2015, the rug was made for a regional Khan in the northern part of Iran around 1810. Other features of the room include a low bookcase, bordered and topped with classic carving, that was crafted by university carpenters to replace the original fireplace whose inclusion was impractical on the 12th floor, along with two crystal drop chandeliers.</p><br>
<p>Dean Helen Pool Rush and her successor, Dean Savina Skewis, carried on the traditions of Dean Amos until the Dean of Women&#39;s Office was closed in 1969, and its functions and quarters were assumed by other departments. The Braun Room is used for meetings and study abroad scholarship selection panels.</p><br>
<h3>Croghan-Schenley Ballroom</h3><br>
<p>The Croghan-Schenley room, situated on the first floor of the Cathedral in room 156, is actually two adjoining Greek Revival rooms, the Ballroom and the Oval Room, connected by a hidden passageway in the Ballrooms fireplace. The rooms were originally part of William Croghan Jr.s mansion, known as the Picnic House, built in 1830 in the Stanton Heights area of Pittsburgh. The rooms themselves were created in 1835 by the Philadelphia carver Mordecai Van Horn, and they have been regarded as being among the most lavish examples of Greek Revival designs in America.</p><br>
<p>His daughter, Mary Elizabeth, went to boarding school in New York, but in 1842 at the age of fifteen she eloped with 43-year-old Edward Wyndham Harrington Schenley, a captain in the British military. The elopement caused a family schism. Mary would not visit often, and in an effort to convince her to move back to Pittsburgh, the new rooms were commissioned. Following the death of William Croghan in 1850, the mansion was run by caretakers with no permanent residents for some 60 years. William S. Miller, then president of Steelwood Corp., purchased the Croghan mansion following World War II and it was soon leveled for a new housing development, but the Croghan-Schenley rooms were spared.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, the rooms, donated by Miller, were dismantled and rebuilt in the cathedral, except that the original ceilings had to be lowered about 8 inches to accommodate the available space.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, the rooms were refurbished to their 19th century glory. Highlighting the ballroom are the hand-cut glass chandelier and four wooden, hand-carved Greek columns, surviving examples of western Pennsylvania&#39;s Greek classical revival period popular with those of means in the 1830s.</p><br>
<p>The Croghan-Schenley rooms are the last extant vestiges of the estate of Mary Schenley, who before she died gave much of her holdings and property to the city of Pittsburgh—including Schenley farms, where the Cathedral sits, and Schenley Park.</p><br>
<p>Stories tell of a ghost, speculated to be that of Mary Schenley, that is said to roam the Ballroom and Nationality Rooms. The doors to the rooms are locked every night, but furniture is sometimes said to be found rearranged by daylight staff. The swinging of the chandelier has been said to indicate her presence.</p><br>
<h3>Frick Auditorium</h3><br>
<p>The Frick Auditorium is a lecture hall in room 324 of the Cathedral of Learning. Originally conceptualized as the Fine Arts Lecture Room intended to complement the Fine Arts Department then located on the seventh floor, the room was completed in 1939 and features stone mullions, chambranle, and other trim as well as wooden lecture seating and a coffered ceiling. A centerpiece element in the room is a Nicholas Lochoff reproduction of The Resurrection by Piero della Francesca that was purchased for the lecture hall by Helen Clay Frick. Frick would later donate a large collection of Lochoff reproductions to the university which are on display in the Nicholas Lochoff Cloister in the university&#39;s Frick Fine Arts Building.</p><br>
<h3>Humanities Center</h3><br>
<p>The University of Pittsburghs Humanities Center, part of School of Arts and Sciences, is housed in the Cathedral of Learnings room 602, which was a sixth-floor space once occupied by the Darlington Memorial Library. Following digitization and protective storage of the librarys materials, its space was renovated in 2009 by architect Rob Pfaffmann to house the center, which now includes office space for staff and visiting fellows. The Humanities Center space retains much of the original character and many of the antique furnishings originally bequeathed to the university by the Darlington family, and features moldings and green walls that are duplicated from the 18th mansion Graeme Park, a Pennsylvania colonial-era governors residence. The Center for Humanities was finished in time for an open house that was part a conference hosted by the center on November 14–15, 2009.</p><br>
<p>The space served as the home of The Darlington Memorial Library from 1936 until its recent conversion to the Humanities Center. The library was entered through a memorial vestibule and consisted of a central room with eight alcoves. Among other notable furnishings, it contained a wrought iron entrance gate by Samuel Yellin. The library was given to the University of Pittsburgh by the daughters of William McCullough Darlington and Mary Carson Darlington. The initial gift of eleven thousand volumes was made in 1918 by Mary OHara Darlington and Edith Darlington Ammon. This was followed by Mary OHara Darlingtons bequest in 1925 of the remainder of the familys library and much of the family estate. The Darlington familys tremendous interest in historical research was the force behind creating what was said to be the largest private library west of the Alleghenies. The library collection is particularly rich in material about the French and Indian War and the history of Western Pennsylvania and the Ohio Valley, as both William and Mary Darlington researched and published in these areas. While the collections main focus is on American history and literature, other collection highlights include rare maps and atlases, works on ornithology and natural history, and early travel narratives. The Darlingtons son, OHara Darlington, also amassed collections of Victorian literature sporting books and works of illustrators and caricaturists. The collection also has been enriched over the years by donations from other individuals and organizations, which especially have enhanced its content about the history of the Western Pennsylvania region.</p><br>
<p>Before renovation of the original library space, its materials were digitized and placed online at The Darlington Digital Library. The original, sometimes fragile, materials of the library were placed in storage for availability to researchers upon request. A virtual tour of the Darlington Memorial Library as it previously existed in the Cathedral of Learning is available at the main entrance and the main room.</p><br>
<h3>Cultural Studies, Film Studies, and GSWS program space</h3><br>
<p>Located on the fourth floor of the Cathedral of Learning, the current home of both the Cultural Studies, Film Studies, and Gender, Sexuality, & Womens Studies (GSWS) programs, was the prior home of the McCarl Center for Nontraditional Student Success until it moved to Wesley W. Posvar Hall in 2014. The space occupies what once housed two levels of the main stacks of the universitys library. The 2,500 ft&sup2; space was previously opened as the $537,000 McCarl Center in 2002. Made possible by a gift from F. James and Foster J.J. McCarl, it was designed by Alan J. Cuteri and his architectural firm Strada, LLC, and includes wood finishes, double-height spaces with high ceilings and windows, a main corridor conceived as an interior street, and many elements that refer to the Cathedral of Learning&#39;s Gothic architecture including decorative painted metal columns with contemporary buttress-style arches. Today the space includes a resource library, offices, and seminar room, and class room that are used by the Cultural Studies and GSWS programs. Students in gender studies classes have access to the gender studies library, which houses classic and recent books on gender/sexuality, and to two gender studies classrooms. The GSWS faculty offices are also nearby. Also hanging in a hallway on the fourth floor outside the space, three unsigned and undated 7 by glass-encased murals that depict Renaissance painting styles and which have long belonged to the university but are of unknown origin.</p><br>
<h3>Mulert Memorial Room</h3><br>
<p>Located in room 204, the walnut-paneled Mulert Memorial classroom was designed by Philadelphia architect Gustav Ketterer and university architect Albert Klimcheck. The room features wood floors, fluted ionic columns, red velvet draperies, and student chairs with leather seats. The rooms doors have fluted jams and panelings of Greek rosettes. A Mulert family coat-of-arms and memorial inscription is located on the rear wall of the room. The room was provided for in the will of the late Mt. Lebanon resident Justus Mulert, the room was dedicated on December 21, 1942, and serves as a memorial to Mulerts wife, Louise and his son Ferdinand Max, who died in 1912 during his senior year at Washington and Jefferson College.</p><br>
<h3>Richard E. Rauh Studio Theatre</h3><br>
<p>The Richard E. Rauh Studio Theatre, a facility utilized by the Department of Theatre Arts, is located in the basement of the cathedral. The Rauh Studio Theatre is a black box space that can be configured for almost any set requirements. It is home to student-directed laboratory productions, play readings, Dark Night Cabaret, and played host to Pittsburghs longest-running theatre show, Friday Nite Improvs, started in 1989 by graduate theatre students. In 2017 the Studio Theatre was named in honor of Pitt alumnus Richard E. Raugh who donated $1 million to support it and the universitys theater productions.</p><br>
<h3>Frederick Honors College</h3><br>
<p>The Frederick Honors College, dedicated in 1986, is housed in a 2002-2003 renovated space on the 35th and 36th floors of the cathedral. The Frederick Honors College provides support and enriched opportunities for scholarship among the university&#39;s undergraduates and offers a Bachelor of Philosophy (BPhil) degree.</p><br>
<p>The 2002-2003 renovation, by Rothschild Doyno Collaborative of Pittsburgh&#39;s Strip District, showcased an existing two-story arched window that is visible at night for miles around. The four-leaf medieval quatrefoil medallion at the top of the cathedral is a central motif in the design of the Honors College. Stained glass behind the reception desk at the center of the space was designed by Glenn Greene Glass of Regent Square and centers on a design representing the four seasons, done in polished agate. Wrought ironwork was produced by Vic Reynaud of Technique Manufacturing in the spirit of Samuel Yellin who did the Commons Room ironwork.</p><br>
<h2>Recent proposed changes to the Cathedral</h2><br>
<p>In the early 2000s, there was some controversy over whether university funds should be used to illuminate the Cathedral at night, or to clean the buildings façade. The cleaning was abandoned because it was too costly. Some Oakland residents spoke out against the cleaning, stating that the years of soot should stay as an homage to Pittsburghs industrial past. However, the university approved nearly $5 million for cleaning and restoration of stonework on February 28, 2007. The work was completed at the end of 2007, restoring the exterior of the building to its original condition.</p><br>
<p>In the wake of the September 11 attacks, the cathedral was deemed "at risk" because no obstacles were in place to prevent a vehicle from driving into the entrances of the building. To address this concern, the university installed bollards that rise out of the sidewalk.</p><br>
<p>In 2014 the Property and Facilities Committee approved a plan for a $10.4 million upgrade of the buildings elevator system. This is the second major upgrade of the elevators implemented in the buildings history. Originally manually controlled and later automated to Westinghouse Selectomatic in 1971, the system was completely modernized into Otis Compass+ destination dispatch in 2016.</p><br>
<p>Iolani Barracks, or hale koa  in Hawaiian, was built in 1870, designed by the architect Theodore Heuck, under the direction of King Lot Kapuaiwa. Located directly adjacent to Iolani Palace in downtown Honolulu, it housed about 80 members of the monarch&#39;s Royal Guard until the overthrow of the Monarchy in 1893. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 as part of the Hawaii Capital Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The structure clearly hearkens to the architecture of medieval castles of Europe with its crenelated parapets and towers. It was constructed with 4,000 coral block walls from the same limestone source used to build Kawaiahao Church and the Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace and has a slate roof. It is surrounded by rooms once used by the guards as a mess hall, kitchen, dispensary, berth room, and lockup. Iolani Barracks was originally built a block behind (mauka, or inland of) Iolani Palace, where the Chiefs Children&#39;s School used to situate.</p><br>
<h2>1873 Barracks Revolt</h2><br>
<p>On September 6, 1873, growing tensions between the enlisted men and the officers resulted in a mutiny after the Hungarian Captain Joseph Jajczay sent four men to the brig for deserting their post guarding the treasury. On the 6th, Jajczay returned from church to the barracks and was attacked by his own soldiers and the prisoners. When Adjutant General Charles Hastings Judd tried to calm the situation he was also attacked. The mutineers took control of the ʻIolani Barracks and later retrieved and loaded two cannons from near the palace. Authorities decided to wait out the mutiny by surrounding the barracks, but did not attack. On the 9th, King Lunalilo interviewed the mutineers and issued an offer to them; 13 agreed and surrendered.</p><br>
<p>The Hungarian-born Jajczay was replaced by native Hawaiian Major William Luther Moehonua.</p><br>
<p>On the 12th, the 24 remaining mutineers agreed to another offer by the king granting full amnesty to end the mutiny. After this revolt, Lunalilo disbanded the Hawaiian Army; it was not restored until King Kalākaua came to power.</p><br>
<h2>Post-Monarchy</h2><br>
<p>After the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, the Royal Guard were paid their month&#39;s salary and disbanded. The barracks was used on several occasions as the headquarters of the National Guard of Hawaii. The building was used as temporary shelter for victims of the 1899 Chinatown fire. It also housed government offices and at one point served as a warehouse.</p><br>
<p>In 1965, the structure was moved, stone by stone, to its current location to make room for the Hawaii State Capitol. Today, the building serves as a visitors center for Iolani Palace and houses a gift shop, ticket office, video theater, and membership office.</p><br>
<p>Ginocchio Historic District, in Marshall, Texas is a historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The district takes its name from the Ginocchio family who operated a hotel, The Ginocchio, in the district during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The district houses numerous historic buildings including: Allen House, The Ginocchio, T&P Depot, the Heflin-Thompson House and the Whaley House. The district is also home to two museums the Harrison County Historical Museum in the Ginocchio and the T&P Railway Museum in the T&P Depot. On January 26, 2007, the Heflin-Thompson House caught fire and suffered much damage. Ricky Thompson, Joel and Michelle Heflin all lost their home and most of their belongings in the fire.</p><br>
<p>The museum was moved from the Ginocchio hotel to the rear of the Memorial City Hall located at the southeast corner of the town square, and the Ginocchio hotel is currently being renovated with the new Ginocchio Restaurant and Bar slated to open soon.</p><br>
<p>The T&P museum remains in the depot and is open according to their posted hours.</p><br>
<p>The Ward House is a house on Capitol Hill in Seattle, Washington, USA. Having been built in 1882, it is one of the oldest houses in Seattle. Existing houses reportedly built before 1882 in Seattle include the 2629 East Aloha Street , 727 28th Avenue  and Maynard&#39;s House located at 3045 64th Avenue Southwest .</p><br>
<p>The building, originally at 1427 Boren Avenue, was designed, built and originally owned by George W. Ward. In 1962, the architect Victor Steinbrueck wrote of it, "…this fanciful example of residential Victorian carpenter Gothic, one of the most interesting and apparently sound of the rare few remaining… could be made delightfully attractive by sympathetic preservation…"</p><br>
<p>Nonetheless, it became vacant in 1974 and was scheduled for demolition in the mid-1980s. The owners, Dr. and Mrs. Michael Buckley, donated the structure to Historic Seattle, a nonprofit architectural preservation organization chartered as a public development authority by the city. Historic Seattle in turn sold it to David Leen, a local lawyer, for $7,500. On April 6, 1986, Leen moved the Ward House from its First Hill lot on Boren Avenue between Union and Pike Streets to its current location at the corner of E. Denny Way and Belmont Avenue E. Leen worked to restore the building using fixtures and furniture from the original time period. The building was occupied by Leen&#39;s law office, as well as several other solo practices, until 2016. It is now owned and occupied by Tola Capital, LLC.</p><br>
<p>Besides being listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is also an official City of Seattle landmark.</p><br>
<p>The Church of the Intercession is an Episcopal congregation located at 550 West 155th Street, at Broadway, on the border of the Harlem and Washington Heights neighborhoods of Manhattan, New York City, on the grounds of Trinity Church Cemetery. The congregation was founded in 1846, and the current sanctuary, built in 1912–1915, was designed by Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue in the Gothic Revival style. From 1906–1976, it was a chapel of Trinity Church.</p><br>
<p>The Church of the Intercession and its Tudor Revival vicarage were designated New York City Landmarks in 1966, and the complex was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The congregation which became the Church of the Intercession was founded in 1846 in Carmansville, a hamlet which would later be known as Audubon Park before becoming part of the Washington Heights neighborhood, by John James Audubon and John R. Morewood; it was incorporated in 1847. Services were initially held in Morewood&#39;s home, with members who came from both Trinity Church on Broadway and Wall Street, and from the Church of the Ascension at Fifth Avenue and 10th Street.</p><br>
<p>In 1847, the congregation completed building their first sanctuary, a Victorian Gothic style wooden structure at West 154th Street and Tenth Avenue (now Amsterdam Avenue). The building&#39;s outline can still be seen on what was the adjoining building. In 1871, the vestry decided to move the parish and sell the building.</p><br>
<p>The congregation&#39;s next church was a stone building designed by Rembrandt Lockwood and located at 158th Street and Grand Boulevard, which is now Broadway. However, dissension within the congregation suppressed financial support for the parish, which became insolvent; the church was attached by the sheriff, and services proceeded only on the sufferance of the authorities.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, the congregation was able to recover the church, but by 1906 it was overcrowded, and the parish was still in debt. To alleviate these problems, a deal was struck with Trinity Church, which had intended to build a chapel on the grounds of its cemetery, to disestablish the Church of the Intercession as an independent parish, to become a Trinity Chapel, the Chapel of the Intercession. The cornerstone of a new sanctuary was laid in 1912, and the building was consecrated in 1915. The architect, Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue of Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson, was a master of the Gothic Revival style, and the resulting church is considered to be his masterpiece. Goodhue incorporated elements from other styles into the building, such as the narrow and tall entrances which evoke the English Perpendicular style, while the Decorated Period can be seen in the tracery of the pointed windows, and the tower suggests the Tudor style. The church was built by Edward A. Wehr of Pittsburgh, who considered this his finest piece of work.</p><br>
<p>The congregation again became an independent parish in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Notable facts</h2><br>
<p>David Hurd composed the Intercession Mass during his tenure as church organist. This mass setting is used in many Episcopal congregations.</p><br>
<p>The church is known for its annual Clement Clarke Moore Festival, the oldest continuing Christmas tradition in New York. It takes place on the Sunday before Christmas at 4pm. In 2010 celebrated the one-hundredth anniversary of the tradition. At the center of the service is the reading of Moore&#39;s narrative poem "A Visit from Saint Nicholas".</p><br>
<p>Moore, among others of the New York social elite of the time, are buried in the adjoining Trinity Church Cemetery. Also in the cemetery is an imposing monument to John James Audubon. John Jacob Astor is also buried here, as is Alfred Tennyson Dickens, the son of Charles Dickens. A monument to the architect, Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue, sculpted by his friend Lee Lawrie in 1929, contains his tomb.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The basement of the church was used in the 2012 TV series 666 Park Avenue as The Drake&#39;s "secret room."</p><br>
<p>In the season 1, episode 4 New Amsterdam episode of AMC drama Mad Men, Trudy Campbell divulges to a member of the co-op board that Pete&#39;s great-great grandfather Nicholas Dyckman is buried at Church of the Intercession.</p><br>
<p>In the 2021 Steven Spielberg film West Side Story, Maria (Rachel Zegler) and Tony (Ansel Elgort) sing "One Hand, One Heart" in a scene filmed at Church of the Intercession, although the implied location is The Cloisters.</p><br>
<p>Drumthwacket is the official residence of the governor of the USA state of New Jersey at 354 Stockton Street in Princeton, New Jersey, near the state capital of Trenton.</p><br>
<p>The mansion was built in 1835 and expanded in 1893 and 1900. It was sold with its surrounding land to the state in 1966. Drumthwacket was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 10, 1975 for its significance in agriculture, architecture, commerce, landscape architecture, and politics. It was designated the governor&#39;s mansion in 1982.</p><br>
<p>The estate is administered by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. It serves as the executive residence and is also a historic house museum.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The land that Drumthwacket is built on was once owned by William Penn, the Quaker proprietor of the Province of Pennsylvania and founder of Philadelphia. William Olden bought it in 1696 and built a small white homestead called Olden House.</p><br>
<p>In 1799, Charles Smith Olden was born there. Olden gained wealth working at a mercantile firm in Philadelphia and later New Orleans before returning to Princeton, where he began to build Drumthwacket in 1835. The name probably comes from Sir Walter Scott&#39;s 1819 novel A Legend of Montrose, whose comic character Dugald Dalgetty is laird of Drumthwacket. Olden began his involvement in politics as a gentleman farmer and businessman, as treasurer and Trustee of the College of New Jersey, as a state Senator, and as governor in 1860, the first to live at Drumthwacket. The original structure consisted of a center hall with two rooms on each side, including the -story center section and large portico with six Ionic columns.</p><br>
<p>In 1893, financier, industrialist, and Princeton University benefactor Moses Taylor Pyne purchased Drumthwacket from Olden&#39;s widow. Pyne was responsible for major expansions of the home, turning it into a magnificent estate, "surpassing anything previously built in Princeton". Pyne added two wings on each side of the house in 1893 and 1900, both designed by Raleigh C. Gildersleeve and including a paneled library. Pyne also added park-like landscaping, greenhouses, bridle paths, a dairy farm, and formal Italian gardens.</p><br>
<p>Pyne died in 1921, and his granddaughter Agnes Pyne sold the property to Abram Nathaniel Spanel in 1941. Spanel was an industrialist and inventor who had immigrated from Russia as a child. He founded the International Latex Corporation, which became the International Playtex Corporation. Many of Spanel&#39;s staff lived at Drumthwacket, and many of his patented inventions were conceived in the Music Room.</p><br>
<p>In 1966, the Spanels sold the estate to New Jersey with the intent that it be used as the governors official residence, to replace Morven, the old governors mansion. However, it took 15 years for the estate to be used as an official residence, with the New Jersey Historical Society raising enough funds in 1981.</p><br>
<p>In 1982, the Drumthwacket Foundation, a non-profit organization responsible for preserving, restoring, and curating the house and its grounds, was established by New Jersey First Lady Deborah Kean. Kean renovated much of the public and ceremonial rooms in the mansion. Before the renovation, much of Drumthwacket was furnished with older, donated furniture, much of which was unsuited for the home&#39;s new ceremonial role. Despite her work, Governor Thomas Kean and Deborah Kean chose to live at their own home in Livingston, New Jersey, rather than Drumthwacket.</p><br>
<p>Governor Jim Florio, who was in office from 1990 to 1994, and First Lady Lucinda Florio were the first gubernatorial couple to live at Drumthwacket. Lucinda Florio also oversaw major renovations and played a key role in its conversion into a modern governors residence. Florio focused much of her work on Drumthwackets private living quarters, which had been largely untouched by her predecessor. The gardens were originally created in 1905 by the mansion&#39;s previous owner, Moses Taylor Pyne, but had fallen into disrepair by the 1990s. In 1990, Lucinda Florio hosted a small wedding reception for her father at the home.</p><br>
<h2>Use by recent governors</h2><br>
<p>Thomas Kean (1982–1990) lived in his private home in Livingston.</p><br>
<p>James Florio (1990–1994) lived full-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Christine Todd Whitman (1994–2001) lived part-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Donald DiFrancesco (2001–2002) lived part-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>John O. Bennett (2002) lived in the mansion for his 3½ days as Acting Governor.</p><br>
<p>James McGreevey (2002–2004) lived full-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Richard Codey (2004–2006) lived part-time in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Jon Corzine (2006–2010) lived part-time in the mansion. Drumthwacket became his full-time residence while he was recovering from injuries sustained in a severe automobile accident.</p><br>
<p>Chris Christie (2010–2018) only used the mansion for Sunday dinners and official functions, while living in his private home in Mendham.</p><br>
<p>Phil Murphy (2018-) lives in his private home in Middletown and uses the mansion for official functions and meetings.</p><br>
<h2>Building details and tours</h2><br>
<p>There are 12 private rooms upstairs used by the first family and six public rooms on the main floor that are the site of many official functions. An annual Garden Club holiday display is a tradition at the property.</p><br>
<p>Drumthwacket is open for guided tours on most Wednesdays, except for August, the day before Thanksgiving, and several other dates. The tour includes the six public rooms used by the governor for meetings and receptions, as well as the solarium, center hall, dining room, parlor, music room, library, and governor&#39;s study. Guided tours are conducted by volunteer docents. Visitors can walk through the gardens and visit the Olden House, the restored farmhouse on the property that houses a gift shop and the Drumthwacket Foundation.</p><br>
<p>The Alfred McCune Home is one of the mansions on Capitol Hill in Salt Lake City, Utah, from around the turn of the 20th century. Built for Alfred W. McCune on the inclined south side of Capitol Hill at the northeast corner of 200 North Main Street, the mansion has 21 rooms and is on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>About the owner</h2><br>
<p>McCune was born in Calcutta, India, while his father, Matthew McCune, was stationed with the British Army and converted there to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The family immigrated to Utah Territory, settling in Farmington and then in Nephi. Alfred William McCune joined the LDS Church in Farmington in 1857. He and Elizabeth were childhood sweethearts and were married on July 1, 1872, in the Endowment House in Salt Lake City. Though McCune was not very active in church service, he donated a lot of money to it. According to LDS Church president Heber J. Grant&#39;s notes in his personal journal (April 1, 1927), McCune was always in good standing with the LDS Church.</p><br>
<p>By the time he was 21, McCune had contracted to build portions of the Utah Southern Railroad. He was a highly successful railroad builder, and became well-connected to other late 19th century millionaires. He was a partner in the Peruvian Cerro de Pasco mines along with J. P. Morgan, William Randolph Hearst, and Frederick William Vanderbilt. He owned business interests throughout Utah and in parts of Montana, British Columbia, and South America.</p><br>
<p>McCune was respected by his contemporaries for his integrity, his congenial personality, and his generous donations to worthy causes. He was also civic-minded and politically ambitious. In 1899, he ran for the Senate as the Democratic candidate against Republican incumbent Frank J. Cannon and several other candidates. When none was able to get a majority of votes, the election went down in history as the time when Utah was unable to select or send a senator to Washington. McCune later tried again for the Senate but was defeated by another mining and railroad magnate, Thomas Kearns.</p><br>
<h2>The House</h2><br>
<p>The house was built in 1900. Elizabeth McCune had as many diversified interests as her husband had. She served in many prominent LDS Church positions and became close friends with Susa Young Gates, one of the daughters of Brigham Young. An active supporter of women&#39;s rights, Elizabeth attended the 1889 International Congress of Women in London. After being voted patron of the organization, Elizabeth was entertained by Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle.</p><br>
<p>McCune wanted his home to be an extravagant display and to this end he financed a two-year tour of America and Europe for his architect S. C. Dallas to study designs and techniques. The design chosen was a Gothic revival plan with East Asian influence. The home is a replica of a house Alfred and Elizabeth saw while driving on Riverside Drive in New York City.</p><br>
<p>While the home was under construction, John R. Winder and McCune called upon the First Presidency of the LDS Church. McCune told them that he and his wife were building a new home and wished to rent the Gardo House for two or three years. The Gardo house had been used as a residence and offices for LDS Church leaders. Relieved to find a suitable new tenant, the church accepted his offer and set the rent at $150 per month.</p><br>
<p>The McCune home site was chosen to rise up impressively over the nearby streets, and little expense was spared on decoration. McCune had mahogany shipped from San Domingo, oak from England, and a rare white-grained mahogany from South Africa. The red roof tiles came from the Netherlands, and an enormous broad mirror wall was transported from Germany in a specially made railroad car. The walls were adorned with moiré silks, tapestries, and Russian leather. The exterior of the home was built of red Utah sandstone although some details like the lavish fireplaces used more exotic stone like Nubian marble. The home was completed in 1901 at a cost of one million dollars.</p><br>
<h2>History after the McCunes</h2><br>
<p>McCune and his wife lived in the home until 1920. Prior to moving to Los Angeles, they donated it to the LDS Church with the intent that it be used as an official residence for church president Heber J. Grant. Grant did not like the idea of living in such an ornate residence, and so decided to turn it into a Music School. It was used as the McCune School of Music, which ended in 1957 and was replaced by the Brigham Young University Salt Lake City Center, until 1972 when it too was moved into a larger location. In 1973, the LDS Church sold the house to a group of Salt Lake City residents who were seeking to make the building into a cultural center.</p><br>
<p>It then became the Virginia Tanner Modern Dance School, which held lessons in the ballroom. Since then, the building has been privately owned, often used for wedding receptions and other short-term rentals.</p><br>
<p>Philip McCarthey, a shareholder of the Kearns-Tribune Corp., which published The Salt Lake Tribune until 1997, bought the building and began restoring it after the August 11, 1999, Salt Lake City Tornado, which had toppled one of the building&#39;s smokestacks. McCarthey completed the restoration in November 2001.</p><br>
<p>The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<p>A carriage house on the property, designed by architect Henry Monheim, is also a contributing building; it was built for the Judge R. N. Baskin house built in 1872 previously on the site, and was retained.</p><br>
<p>Somerset Place is a former plantation near Creswell in Washington County, North Carolina, along the northern shore of Lake Phelps, and now a State Historic Site that belongs to the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. Somerset Place operated as a plantation from 1785 until 1865. Before the end of the American Civil War, Somerset Place had become one of the Upper South&#39;s largest plantations.</p><br>
<p>In 1969, Somerset Place was designated as a State Historic Site. In 1986, descendants of African American slaves from Somerset Place planned a gathering known as Somerset Homecoming. The event inspired a book titled "Somerset Homecoming" written by the property&#39;s former manager Dorothy Spruill Redford, who retired in 2008.</p><br>
<p>Visitors can tour the 1830s period plantation house, the dairy, kitchen/laundry, kitchen rations building, smokehouse and salting house. The site features several reconstructed buildings for the plantation&#39;s slaves, including two homes and the plantation hospital; the grounds also include reconstructed stocks like those used to punish slaves.</p><br>
<p>The visitor center&#39;s exhibits display the history of the site and antebellum North Carolina. There is also a gift shop.</p><br>
<p>Nature trails lead to Pettigrew State Park, which adjoins the site.</p><br>
<p>Somerset place contained more than two thousand acres of farmland and another 125,000 acres of cypress and white cedar forests.</p><br>
<p>Biltmore Estate is a historic house museum and tourist attraction in Asheville, North Carolina, United States. The main residence, Biltmore House , is a Châteauesque-style mansion built for George Washington Vanderbilt II between 1889 and 1895 and is the largest privately owned house in the United States, at of floor space and of living area. Still owned by George Vanderbilt&#39;s descendants, it remains one of the most prominent examples of Gilded Age mansions.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 1880s, at the height of the Gilded Age, George Washington Vanderbilt II began to make regular visits with his mother, Maria Louisa Kissam Vanderbilt, to the Asheville area. He loved the scenery and climate so much that he decided to build a summer house in the area, which he called his "little mountain escape". His older brothers and sisters had built luxurious summer houses in places such as Newport, Rhode Island, the Gold Coast of Long Island, and Hyde Park, New York.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Vanderbilt named his estate Biltmore, combining De Bilt (his ancestors&#39; place of origin in the Netherlands) with more (, Anglo-Saxon for "moor", an open, rolling land). Vanderbilt eventually bought 125,000 acre of land, comprising nearly 700 parcels, including over 50 farms and at least five cemeteries; a portion of the estate was once the community of Shiloh. A spokesperson for the estate said in 2017 that archives show much of the land "was in very poor condition, and many of the farmers and other landowners were glad to sell."</p><br>
<p>Construction of the house began in 1889. In order to facilitate such a large project, a woodworking factory and brick kiln, which produced 32,000 bricks a day, were built onsite. A 3 mi railroad spur was constructed to bring materials to the building site. Construction on the main house required the labor of about 1,000 workers and 60 stonemasons. Vanderbilt made extensive trips overseas during construction to purchase decor. He returned to North Carolina with thousands of furnishings for his newly built home, including tapestries, hundreds of carpets, prints, linens, and decorative objects, dating from the 15th century to the late 19th century. Among the few American-made items were the more practical oak drop-front desk, rocking chairs, a walnut grand piano, bronze candlesticks, and a wicker wastebasket.</p><br>
<h3>1890s to 1950s</h3><br>
<p>George Vanderbilt opened his opulent estate, on Christmas Eve of 1895, to family and friends from across the country who were encouraged to enjoy leisure and country pursuits. The Gilded Age mansion reportedly cost $5 million (equivalent to about $ million today) to construct. Guests to the estate over the years included novelists Edith Wharton and Henry James, ambassadors Joseph Hodges Choate and Larz Anderson, and USA presidents. George married Edith Stuyvesant Dresser in 1898 in Paris, France. Their only child, Cornelia Stuyvesant Vanderbilt, was born at Biltmore in the Louis XV room in 1900 and grew up at the estate.</p><br>
<p>Stressed by Congressional passage of income tax and the expensive maintenance of the estate, Vanderbilt initiated the sale of to the federal government. After Vanderbilts unexpected death in 1914, of complications from an emergency appendectomy, his widow completed the sale. She carried out her husbands wish that the land remain pristine, and that property became the nucleus of the Pisgah National Forest. Overwhelmed with running the large estate, Edith Vanderbilt began consolidating her interests, selling Biltmore Estate Industries in 1917 and Biltmore Village in 1921. She intermittently occupied the house, living in an apartment created in the former Bachelors&#39; Wing, until the marriage of her daughter Cornelia to John Francis Amherst Cecil in April 1924. The Cecils had two sons, who were born at Biltmore in the same room where their mother was born.</p><br>
<p>In March 1930, in an attempt to bolster the estate&#39;s finances during the Great Depression, Cornelia and her husband opened Biltmore to the public at the request of the City of Asheville, which hoped to revitalize the area with tourism.</p><br>
<p>From 1941 to 1945, during World War II, Biltmore closed. In 1942, 62 paintings and 17 sculptures were moved to the estate by train from the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., to protect them in the event of an attack on the United States. The Music Room on the first floor was never finished, so it was used for storage until 1944, when the possibility of an attack became more remote. Among the works stored were the Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington and works by Rembrandt, Raphael, and Anthony van Dyck. David Finley, the gallery director, was a friend of Edith Vanderbilt and had stayed at the estate.</p><br>
<p>After the Cecils divorced in 1934, Cornelia left the estate, never to return, but John Cecil maintained his residence in the Bachelors Wing until his death in 1954. Their eldest son, George Henry Vanderbilt Cecil, occupied rooms in the wing until 1956. At that point, Biltmore House ceased to be a family residence and was operated as a historic house museum. Their younger son, William A. V. Cecil Sr., returned to the estate in the late 1950s and partnered with his brother to manage the estates financial trouble. They worked to create the profitable and self-sustaining enterprise that their grandfather had envisioned.</p><br>
<h3>1960s to present</h3><br>
<p>William Cecil inherited the estate upon the death of their mother, Cornelia, in 1976. His brother, George, inherited the more profitable dairy farm, which was spun off as Biltmore Farms.</p><br>
<p>In 1995, while celebrating the estate&#39;s centenary, William Cecil turned over control of the company to his son, William A. V. Cecil Jr. The Biltmore Company is privately held. Of the that make up Biltmore Estate, only are within the city limits of Asheville, and the Biltmore House is not part of any municipality.</p><br>
<p>The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1963, and remains a major tourist attraction in western North Carolina, with around 1.4 million visitors each year.</p><br>
<p>Since the death of William A. V. Cecil in October 2017 and his wife Mimi Cecil in November, their daughter Dini Pickering has served as board chair and their son Bill Cecil as chief executive officer. The house is assessed at $157.2 million, although due to an agricultural deferment, county property taxes are paid on only $79.1 million.</p><br>
<p>The estate was temporarily closed after Hurricane Helene in September 2024. Though the group sales office was destroyed, the Biltmore House, conservatory, and several structures survived without serious damage.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Vanderbilt commissioned prominent New York architect Richard Morris Hunt, who had previously designed houses for various Vanderbilt family members, to design the house in the Châteauesque style. Hunt used French Renaissance châteaux as inspiration. Vanderbilt and Hunt had visited several in early 1889, including Château de Blois, Chenonceau and Chambord in France and Waddesdon Manor in England. These estates shared steeply pitched roofs, turrets, and sculptural ornamentation.</p><br>
<h3>Form and facade</h3><br>
<p>Hunt sited the four-story Indiana limestone-built home to face east, with a 375 ft facade to fit into the mountainous topography behind. The facade is asymmetrically balanced with two projecting wings connecting to the entrance tower: an open loggia is to the left side and a windowed arcade to the right, which holds the Winter Garden that was fashionable during the Victorian era. The entrance tower contains a series of windows with decorated jambs that extend from the front door to the most decorated dormer at Biltmore on the fourth floor. The carved decorations include trefoils, flowing tracery, rosettes, gargoyles and, at prominent lookouts, grotesques. The staircase is one of the more prominent features of the east facade, with its three-story, highly decorated winding balustrade with carved statues of St. Louis and Joan of Arc by the Austrian-born architectural sculptor Karl Bitter.</p><br>
<p>The south facade is the houses smallest and is dominated by three large dormers on the east side and a polygonal turret on the west. An arbor is attached to the house and is accessed from the library, which is located on the ground floor. On the north end of the house, Hunt placed the attached stables, carriage house and its courtyard to protect the house and gardens from the wind. The complex housed Vanderbilts prized driving horses. The carriage house opposite the stables stored his twenty carriages in addition to any of his guests&#39; carriages.</p><br>
<p>The rear western elevation is less elaborate than the front facade, with some windows not having any decoration at all. Two matching polygonal towers in the center are connected to the polygonal south turret by an open loggia that opens the main rooms of the house to the views of the Blue Ridge Mountains in the distance. The loggia is decorated overhead with terracotta tiles set in a herringbone pattern. The self-supporting ceramic tile vault and arch system was used extensively inside and outside of Biltmore, and was patented by Rafael Guastavino, a Spanish architect and engineer who personally supervised the installation. The limestone columns were carved to reflect the sunlight in aesthetically pleasing and varied ways per Vanderbilt&#39;s wish. The rusticated base is a contrast to the smooth limestone used on the remainder of the house.</p><br>
<p>The steeply pitched roof is punctuated by sixteen chimneys and covered with slate tiles that were affixed one by one. Each tile was drilled at the corners and wired onto the attics steel infrastructure. Copper flashing was installed at the junctions to prevent water from penetrating. The fanciful flashing on the ridge of the roof was embossed with George Vanderbilts initials and motifs from his family crest, though the original gold leaf no longer survives.</p><br>
<h3>Interiors</h3><br>
<p>Biltmore has 4 acre of floor space and 250 rooms in the house, including 35 bedrooms for family and guests, 43 bathrooms, 65 fireplaces, three kitchens and 19th-century novelties such as an electric Otis elevator, forced-air heating, centrally controlled clocks, fire alarms and a call bell system. Biltmore House had electricity from the time it was built, though initially it received direct current electricity due to Vanderbilt&#39;s friendship with Thomas Edison. With electricity less safe and fire more of a danger at the time, the house had six separate sections divided by brick fire walls.</p><br>
<h4>First floor</h4><br>
<p>The principal rooms of the house are located on the ground floor. To the right of the marbled Entrance Hall, the octagonal sunken Winter Garden is surrounded by stone archways with a ceiling of architecturally sculptured wood and multifaceted glass. The centerpiece is a marble and bronze fountain sculpture titled Boy Stealing Geese, created by Karl Bitter. On the walls just outside the Winter Garden are copies of the Parthenon frieze. The Banquet Hall is the largest room in the house, measuring, with a 70 ft high barrel-vaulted ceiling. The table can seat 64 guests and is surrounded by rare Flemish tapestries and a triple fireplace that spans one end of the hall. On the opposite end of the hall is an organ gallery that houses a 1916 Skinner pipe organ. Left unfinished with bare brick walls, the Music Room was not completed and opened to the public until 1976. It showcases a mantel designed by Hunt, and a print of the large engraving by Albrecht Dürer called the Triumphal Arch, commissioned by Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. The mantel had been stored in the stable for over 80 years.</p><br>
<p>To the left of the entrance hall is the 90 ft long Tapestry Gallery, which leads to the Library, featuring three 16th-century tapestries representing The Triumph of Virtue Over Vice. Elsewhere on the walls are family portraits by John Singer Sargent, Giovanni Boldini, and James Whistler. The two-story Library contains over 10,000 volumes in eight languages, reflecting George Vanderbilt&#39;s broad interests in classic literature as well as works on art, history, architecture, and gardening. The library also houses a concealed passageway that leads to the guest rooms.</p><br>
<p>The second-floor balcony is accessed by an ornate walnut spiral staircase. The Baroque detailing of the room is enhanced by the rich walnut paneling and the ceiling painting, The Chariot of Aurora, brought to Biltmore by Vanderbilt from the Palazzo Pisani Moretta in Venice, Italy. The painting by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini is the most important work by the artist still in existence.</p><br>
<h4>Second floor</h4><br>
<p>The second floor is accessed by the cantilevered Grand Staircase of 107 steps spiraling around a four-story, wrought-iron chandelier holding 72 light bulbs. The second-floor Living Hall is an extension of the grand staircase as a formal hall and portrait gallery, and was restored to its original configuration in 2013. Several large-scale masterpieces are displayed in the hall, including two John Singer Sargent portraits of Biltmores architect, Richard Morris Hunt, and landscaper, Frederick Law Olmsted, both commissioned for the home by Vanderbilt. Located nearby in the south tower is George Vanderbilts gilded bedroom with furniture designed by Hunt. His bedroom connects to his wife&#39;s Louis XV-style, oval-shaped bedroom in the north tower through a Jacobean carved oak paneled sitting room with an intricate ceiling.</p><br>
<p>The suite of rooms includes:</p><br>
<p>the Damask Room, with silk damask draperies and distinct damask-style wallpaper</p><br>
<p>the Claude Room, named after one of Vanderbilt&#39;s favorite artists, Claude Lorrain</p><br>
<p>the Tyrolean Chimney Room, featuring an overmantel made from a Kachelofen, a type of tile oven that stored large amounts of heat, then released it slowly over a long period; and</p><br>
<p>the Louis XV Room, the most grand, so named due to its architectural scheme and furnishings that were very popular in the late nineteenth century. The suite was restored and opened to the public for the first time in 100 years in 2011.</p><br>
<h4>Third and fourth floors</h4><br>
<p>The third floor has a number of guest rooms with names that describe the furnishing or artist that they were decorated with. The fourth floor has 21 bedrooms that were inhabited by housemaids, laundresses, and other female servants. Also included on the fourth floor is an Observatory with a circular staircase that leads to a wrought iron balcony with doorways to the rooftop where Vanderbilt could view his estate. Male servants were not housed here, however, but instead resided in rooms above the stable and complex.</p><br>
<h4>Bachelors&#39; Wing</h4><br>
<p>The Billiard Room is decorated with an ornamental plaster ceiling and rich oak paneling and was equipped with both a custom-made pool table and a carom table (table without pockets). The room was mainly frequented by men, but ladies were welcome to enter as well. Secret door panels on either side of the fireplace led to the private quarters of the Bachelors Wing where female guests and staff members were not allowed. The wing includes the Smoking Room, which was fashionable for country houses, and the Gun Room, which held mounted trophies and displayed George Vanderbilts gun collection.</p><br>
<h4>Basement</h4><br>
<p>The basement level featured activity rooms, including an indoor, 70,000 USAgal heated swimming pool with underwater lighting, a bowling alley, and a gymnasium with once state-of-the-art fitness equipment. The service hub of the house is also found in the largest basement in the country. It holds the main kitchen, pastry kitchen, rotisserie kitchen, walk-in refrigerators that provided an early form of mechanical refrigeration, the servants&#39; dining hall, laundry rooms, and additional bedrooms for staff.</p><br>
<h4>Conservatory</h4><br>
<p>In the conservatory, which has many flowers and trees growing in it, there is also an elevated model railway.</p><br>
<h2>Park and landscape</h2><br>
<p>Vanderbilt envisioned a park-like setting for his home and employed landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted to design the grounds. Olmsted was not impressed with the condition of the and advised having a park surround the house, establishing farms along the river, and replanting the rest as a commercial timber forest, a plan to which Vanderbilt agreed. Gifford Pinchot and later Carl A. Schenck were hired to manage the forests, with Schenck establishing the first forestry education program in the USA in 1898, the Biltmore Forest School, on the estate grounds.</p><br>
<p>Another important aspect of the landscaping was the intentionally rustic four-mile (5 km) Approach track that began at the brick quoined and pebbledash stucco Lodge Gate at the edge of Biltmore Village and ended at the sphinx-topped stone pillars at the Esplanade. In between, the lane was densely planted along the borders with natural and uncultivated-looking foliage and shrubbery to provide a relaxing journey for guests. Olmsted made sure to incorporate of formal gardens, which had been requested by Vanderbilt for the grounds directly surrounding the house. He constructed a Roman formal garden, a formal garden, a bush and tulip garden, water fountains, and a conservatory with individual rooms for palms and roses. There was also a bowling green, an outdoor tea room, and a terrace to incorporate the European statuary that Vanderbilt had brought back from his travels. At the opposite end of the Esplanade is the Rampe Douce (French for "gentle/soft ramp"), a graduated stairway zigzagging along a rough-cut limestone wall that leads to the grassy slope known as the Vista, topped with a statue of Diana, the goddess of the hunt.</p><br>
<p>Water was an important aspect of Victorian landscaping, and Olmsted incorporated two elements for the estate: the Bass Pond created from an old creek-fed millpond and the Lagoon. Each was used for guest recreation such as fishing and rowing. To supply water for the estate, Olmsted engineered two reservoirs. One was a spring-fed man-made lake on nearby Busbee Mountain. The other was a man-made, brick-lined reservoir, located behind the statue of Diana in the Vista, at an elevation of approximately above the Esplanade.</p><br>
<h2>Estate</h2><br>
<p>Vanderbilts idea was to replicate the working estates of Europe. He asked Richard Morris Hunt and Frederick Law Olmsted to design a village with architecturally compatible buildings and picturesque landscaping. He intended it to be a source of income through rental cottages, a place to help carry out philanthropic programs, and an easy point of access between the estate and the train station. The result was Biltmore Village. The village was mostly designed by Richard Sharp Smith, supervising architect of Biltmore, included rental cottages complete with plumbing and central heating, a post office, shops, doctors office, school, and a church, known today as the Cathedral of All Souls.</p><br>
<p>Intending the estate to be self-supporting, Vanderbilt set up scientific forestry programs, poultry farms, cattle farms, hog farms, and dairy. His wife, Edith, also enthusiastically supported agricultural reform and promoted the establishment of a state agricultural fair. In 1901, the Vanderbilts provided financial assistance to Biltmore Industries, started by Biltmore Village resident Eleanor Vance, which taught young people how to make hand-carved furniture, woven baskets, homespun wool fabric, and more.</p><br>
<p>The estate today covers approximately and is split in half by the French Broad River. The estate is overseen by The Biltmore Company, a trust set up by the family. The company is a large enterprise that is one of the largest employers in the Asheville area. Restaurants were opened in 1979, 1987, and 1995, and four gift shops in 1993. The former dairy barn was converted into the Biltmore Winery in 1985. The 210-room luxury hotel, named The Inn on Biltmore Estate, opened in 2001. In 2010, the estate opened Antler Hill Village, consisting of shops and restaurants, as well as a remodeled winery, and connected farmyard. In 2015, the Village Hotel on Biltmore Estate, a more casual option to The Inn with 209 rooms, was opened in Antler Hill Village.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The estate has been used on numerous occasions as a filming location for movies and television shows. These have included The Swan (1956), Being There (1979), The Private Eyes (1980), Mr. Destiny (1990), The Last of the Mohicans (1992), Forrest Gump (1994), Richie Rich (1994), My Fellow Americans (1996), Patch Adams (1998), Hannibal (2001) and The Odd Life of Timothy Green (2012).</p><br>
<p>The Hallmark Channel movie A Biltmore Christmas was filmed at Biltmore House in January 2023, and was first aired the following November. It was the first movie in which the setting was Biltmore House.</p><br>
<p>Popular figures who have visited the Biltmore Estate include: Robert Redford, Tom Hanks, Robin Williams, Robert Downey, Jr., Jimmy Carter, Bill and Melinda Gates, Walter Cronkite, and Anthony Hopkins.</p><br>
<p>The Biltmore Estate is the setting for Robert Beatty&#39;s historical fiction fantasy Serafina Series.</p><br>
<p>The Gaithersburg Latitude Observatory is a historic astronomical observatory on DeSellum Avenue in Gaithersburg, Maryland. It was established in 1899 as part of a system of six International Latitude Observatories to precisely measure the wobble of the Earth&#39;s rotating axis. The observatory building and adjacent monuments were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1989 as a testament to international scientific cooperation. The observatory was taken out of service in 1982 after automation eliminated the need for human observations; the property is now owned by the city.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Gaithersburg Latitude Observatory was one of six observatories &mdash; and one of the four original observatories built by 1899 &mdash; tracking the degree of "wobble" occurring on the earth&#39;s north-south axis and resultant variation of latitude. The Observatory &mdash; along with observatories in Cincinnati, Ohio; Ukiah, California; Mizusawa, Japan; Charjui in Russian Turkestan; and Carloforte, Sardina, Italy &mdash; performed in concert to carry out a coordinated program of star observation designed to investigate and calculate the degree of earth "wobble" or latitude variation.</p><br>
<p>On the grounds of the Gaithersburg Latitude Observatory stands a plaque that reads:</p><br>
<p>This small framed structure played a key role in the scientific investigation of the Earths rotation. In 1898, the International Geodetic Association established a network of observatories to measure the wobble of the planet on its axis by plotting the locations of specific stars. This hilltop in Gaithersburg was chosen together with sites in California, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union. All five lay along the same latitude (39° 8 N). The American Stations were supervised by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The observatorys roof was designed to part in the middle on two sets of tracks to expose the reflecting telescope inside to the night sky. Its slatted exterior walls stabilize the inside air to limit the effects of the temperatures on the accuracy of the telescope. The buildings white paint minimizes heat retention that creates air turbulence around the telescope at night, distorting the stars. Knowledge gained from the observations recorded here nightly until 1982 assisted scientists in the study of the Earth&#39;s geophysical make-up and aided spacecraft orbiting the planet and navigating the universe.</p><br>
<p>A second portion of the observatory was constructed to house the Photographic Zenith Tube. The observers used the Photographic Zenith Tube to capture picture data using the Zenith telescope as a guide of alignment and star track. However, nothing now remains of this addition to the Gaithersburg Latitude Observatory.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Gaithersburg observatory was established as part of the International Polar Motion Service in 1899. The Gaithersburg observatory was built by Edwin Smith, chief of the Instrument Division of the USA Coast and Geodetic Survey, who had conducted similar measurements as a volunteer in 1891-92 from his home in Rockville, Maryland. During its operation twelve groups of stars were studied in the program, each group containing six pairs of stars. Each night, the station observed two of the star groups along a preset schedule and later compared the data against the measurements taken by the five sister stations. The station operated on this schedule until 1915, when it was temporarily closed as a result of economy measures. Operations resumed in 1932 and continued until 1982 when advances in computer technology and satellite observations rendered it obsolete, although data collected by the observatory over the years still has use to scientists, and has been applied to studies of polar motion, the physical properties of the Earth, climatology and satellite tracking and navigation.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Gaithersburg Latitude Observatory stands on the north side of DeSellum Avenue, just north of the Gaithersburg High School campus. The building measures 13 ft square with a small gable-roofed louvered entrance porch on the west side. There is a small shed-roofed addition on the east side. The structure rests on a mortar and fieldstone foundation. Each gable features a decorative wood five-pointed star. A metal ventilator is mounted over each half-section&#39;s roof, topped with similar metal star. A system of metal-capped wood rails allows the building to be pulled apart in the middle using ropes and pulleys. The halves operate independently. The structure is double-walled, with an inner frame of 4×4s sheathed with tongue-and-groove boards, separated by 9 in from the outer, louvered wall, also framed with 4×4s.</p><br>
<p>On the interior, a double floor surrounds a pyramidal concrete pier that supported the observing instruments. A 1½ story brick caretaker&#39;s house, built in 1947, is located 70 ft to the south; it is excluded from the landmark designation.</p><br>
<p>The site was extensively surveyed and documented to support its mission. The Meridian Mark Pier, about 200 ft to the south, was used to align the zenith telescope. Five United States Coast and Geodetic Survey monuments are on the property. The RM-1 monument has been used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration for testing associated with the Global Positioning Satellite system.</p><br>
<p>Snake Alley is a street located in Burlington, Iowa, which was built in 1894. In 2017, Ripley&#39;s Believe It or Not! recognized the street as "Unbelievably Crooked" and the #1 Odd Spot in their Odd Spots Across America Campaign.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The physical limitations and steep elevation of Heritage Hill inspired the construction of Snake Alley in 1894. It was intended to link the downtown business district and the neighborhood shopping area located on North Sixth Street, of which Snake Alley is a one-block section. Three German immigrants conceived and carried out the idea of a winding hillside street, similar to vineyard paths in France and Germany: Charles Starker, an architect and landscape engineer; William Steyh, the city engineer; and George Kriechbaum, a paving contractor. The street was completed in 1898, but was not originally named Snake Alley, as it was considered part of North Sixth Street; some years later, a resident noted that it reminded him of a snake winding its way down the hill, and the name stuck.</p><br>
<p>The alley originally provided a shortcut from Heritage Hill to the business district. Bricks were laid at an angle to allow horses better footing as they descended. Unfortunately, riding horses back up the alley often resulted in a loss of control at the top; for this reason, even to this day, Snake Alley remains a one-way street, with all traffic heading downhill.</p><br>
<p>In the 1940s, writer Robert L. Ripley saw the street in person, and decided to add it to his Ripleys Believe It, Or Not! column, calling it "The Crookedest Street in the World". The turns on Snake Alley are sharper than San Francisco’s famous Lombard Street, giving it a total of 1100° of turning from end to end, where Lombard Streets straighter curves total only 1000°.</p><br>
<p>The alley is composed of limestone and blueclay bricks. The constantly changing slant from one curve to the next necessitated a complicated construction technique to keep the high grade to the outside. Snake Alley consists of five half-curves and two quarter-curves over a distance of 275 ft, rising 58.3 ft, a 21% grade, from Washington Street to Columbia.</p><br>
<p>The street is the site of an annual uphill bike race, the Snake Alley Criterium. There is also an art fair, the Snake Alley Art Fair, sponsored by the Art Center of Burlington. There is also the annual Snake Alley Festival of Film where filmmakers from around the world gather to compete in the various categories for the awards.</p><br>
<p>The Philadelphia History Museum was a public history museum located in Center City, Philadelphia from 1938 until 2018. From 1938 until 2010, the museum was known as the Atwater Kent Museum. The museum occupied architect John Havilands landmark Greek Revival structure built in 1824–1826 for the Franklin Institute. The Museum operated as a city agency as part of Philadelphias Department of Recreation. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 1, 1979.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The museum was established through the efforts of Philadelphia Mayor S. Davis Wilson, Frances Wistar, president of the Philadelphia Society for the Preservation of Landmarks, and A. Atwater Kent, radio pioneer and inventor. In 1938 Kent purchased the former Franklin Institute building, which the Institute had vacated in 1933, and gifted the building to the city for use as a public history museum. Following renovations carried out by the Works Progress Administration, the Museum opened in 1941.</p><br>
<p>After years of declining attendance and financial shortfalls, the museum closed its doors in 2018. In September 2019, the city approved a plan to transfer the museum&#39;s collections to Drexel University who would preserve the collections and offer them out for loan. Drexel was granted control of the collection in April of 2022.</p><br>
<p>Drexel University has reverted the name of the collection to refer to Atwater Kent as the Atwater Kent Collection at Drexel.</p><br>
<h2>Collection</h2><br>
<p>The Museum&#39;s collections included more than 80,000 objects related to Philadelphia and regional history, including an estimated 10,000 17th- to 20th-century artifacts transferred from the Historical Society of Pennsylvania art and artifact collection in 2009, 1700 Quaker-related items from Friends Historical Association Collection, and collections reflecting Philadelphia manufacturing, the 1876 Centennial Exposition, toys and miniatures, and radio broadcasting.</p><br>
<p>Highlights from the permanent exhibitions included the boxing gloves of Joe Frazier, the desk of George Washington, a drinking glass owned by Benjamin Franklin, and a wampum belt allegedly given to William Penn by the Lenape.</p><br>
<p>Minnehaha Park is a city park in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, and home to Minnehaha Falls and the lower reaches of Minnehaha Creek. Officially named Minnehaha Regional Park, it is part of the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board system and lies within the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, a unit of the National Park Service. The park was designed by landscape architect Horace W.S. Cleveland in 1883 as part of the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway system, and was part of the popular steamboat Upper Mississippi River "Fashionable Tour" in the 1800s.</p><br>
<p>The park preserves historic sites that illustrate transportation, pioneering, and architectural themes. Preserved structures include the Minnehaha Princess Station, a Victorian train depot built in the 1870s; the John H. Stevens House, built in 1849 and moved to the park from its original location in 1896, utilizing horses and 10,000 school children; and the Longfellow House, a house built to resemble the Henry Wadsworth Longfellow&#39;s house in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 as the Minnehaha Historic District</p><br>
<p>The central feature of the park, Minnehaha Falls, was a favorite subject of pioneer photographers, beginning with Alexander Heslers daguerreotype in 1852. Although he never visited the park, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow helped to spread the waterfalls fame when he wrote his celebrated poem, The Song of Hiawatha. The falls are located on Minnehaha Creek near the creek&#39;s confluence with the Mississippi River, near Fort Snelling. The main Minnesota Veterans Home is located on a bluff where the Mississippi and Minnehaha Creek converge. More than 850,000 people visit Minnehaha Falls each year, and it continues to be the most photographed site in Minnesota.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Minnehaha Falls gets its name from the nearby Dakota people, meaning mni (water) and haha (curling). It was considered a safe place for gathering.</p><br>
<p>European settlement in the area began in 1805 when the US Army bought a nine-square-mile tract of land at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota River from the Dakota people. Sited on the bluff overlooking the rivers, Fort Snelling was built under the command of Colonel Josiah Snelling between 1820 and 1824. In 1821 Snelling&#39;s son, William Joseph Snelling came to the fort after leaving West Point and spending a year with friendly Sioux. According to a Minnesota history account written in 1858, "The year after he came to the fort young Snelling set out in company with Joseph R. Brown, a frontiersman and local celebrity, to explore the rivulet that supplies the cascade of Minne Ha-Ha, as far as Lake Minne Tonka." Both "men" were 17-year-old boys at the time.</p><br>
<p>Some very early records refer to the falls as "Browns Falls" which lead some historians to assume they were named after prominent pioneer Joseph R. Brown. Park Ranger Kathy Swenson, writing for the National Park Service in 2009 states: "The overwhelming evidence points to Browns Falls (and creek) being named for Jacob Brown, major general and commander in chief of the army from 1814 – 1828 rather than for Joseph R. Brown, teenage musician at Fort Snelling and later army sergeant (1820–1828), fur trader, politician, editor, and inventor. However, I have not yet found a document that officially or specifically mentions Jacob Brown as the namesake." Swenson explains "Browns Fall/Creek seems to be most associated with military maps and personnel while</p><br>
<p>Little Falls/Creek seems to be favored by those without a strong military connection although there are exceptions." The current name is Dakota for waterfall.</p><br>
<h3>The Song of Hiawatha brings fame</h3><br>
<p>The name "Minnehaha Falls" was in common use by 1855, when the publication of The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow brought the falls worldwide fame. Longfellows epic poem features Hiawatha, a Native American hero who falls in love with Minnehaha, a Native American woman who later dies during a severe winter. Longfellow never visited the falls himself. He was inspired by the writings of Mary H. Eastman and Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, and by a daguerreotype created by Alexander Hesler when he chose the name for Hiawathas lover. The image was taken in 1852, according to a letter written by Hesler, as discussed in "Minnesota History" magazine. Clearly, Longfellow took the name of his character Minnehaha from the falls; the falls were not named for her.</p><br>
<h3>The "Fashionable Tour"</h3><br>
<p>Beginning in 1828, steamboats began to travel the Mississippi River as far north as St. Paul, the upper limit of commercial navigation on the Mississippi, until two dams and a series of locks were built between 1948 and 1963. The steamboat journey began to attract the attention of tourists, and in 1835 well known artist of American Indian life George Catlin made a trip by steamboat up the Mississippi from St. Louis to the Falls of St. Anthony and Fort Snelling. Impressed with the scenery, Catlin proposed a "Fashionable Tour" of the upper Mississippi, saying:</p><br>
<p>This Tour would comprehend but a small part of the great "Far West&quot but it will furnish to the traveller a fair sample, and being apart of it which is now made so easily accessible to the world, and the only part of it to which ladies can have access, I would recommend to all who have time and inclination to devote to the enjoyment of so splendid a Tour, to wait not, but make it while the subject is new, and capable of producing the greatest degree of pleasure.</p><br>
<p>Following Catlins visit, each ensuing year saw an increasing number of sightseers, artists, and photographers. Hundreds of Stereoscopic View cards of the falls exist. The visitors were mainly men but a few women took the journey, most notably 80-year-old Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, the widow of Alexander Hamilton. The beauty of the area was also spread through moving panoramas, artistic panoramic creations that were shown much like todays travel documentaries. Quoting from a 1939 paper written by the Minnesota Historical Society:</p><br>
<p>Crowds of people went to see these travel movies of the 1840s and 1850s and thus toured the great river vicariously. The throngs that wished to view Banvards panorama were so great when it was displayed in Boston and New York that railroads ran special excursions to accommodate them. In these two cities alone more than four hundred thousand people saw the exhibition. "The river comes to me instead of my going to the river," wrote Longfellow. John Whittier, after seeing a panorama, sang of the "new Canaan of our Israel," and Thoreau, who not only viewed a panorama but also made the tour itself, envisaged "a coming heroic age in which simple and obscure men, the real heroes of history, would build the foundations of new castles n the West and throw bridges across a Rhine stream of a different kind.&#39;"</p><br>
<p>According to an account written in 1852, passengers disembarked St. Paul and " stagecoach for what was called the grand tour. It consisted of a drive from St. Paul to St. Anthony, then out to Lakes Harriet and Calhoun, thence to the Minnehaha Falls and Fort Snelling, and by the Spring Cave to St. Paul, arriving in time for the visitors, if in haste, to return with the boat down the river."</p><br>
<p>By the late 1860s the railroads had extended their rails to Minneapolis/St. Paul and they began to actively advertise Minnesota as a tourist destination. The 1878 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway promotional booklet, A Guide to the Summer Resorts of Minnesota, told of the delights and health benefits of travel to Minnesota: "The scenery is unequaled and the invigorating air is so rich in oxygen and ozone that it is unsurpassed anywhere in the world and is sure to offer to the tourist and the invalid a hearty welcome, confident that the one will surely find rest and enjoyment, and the other that much coveted of earthly blessings — health." The booklet describes the coach ride from Minneapolis to Minnehaha Falls: "One of the famous trips that few tourists miss taking is that from Minneapolis to St. Paul by carriage. Starting from the former place on the west side of the river, a pleasant drive of four miles over a level prairie, brings the traveler to Where the Falls of Minnehaha Flash and gleam among the oak trees. Laugh and leap into the valley.</p><br>
<p>The round trip fare from St. Louis to Minneapolis was $30 and it featured Pullman sleeping cars. The booklet lists the population of Minneapolis as 40,000 at that time.</p><br>
<h3>Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway</h3><br>
<p>Fortunately for the generations to come, in 1883 the state legislature created the Minneapolis Board of Park Commissioners. The board began by acquiring park land near today&#39;s downtown Minneapolis. Their choice to hire noted landscape architect Horace Cleveland was fortunate. Cleveland was hired by the Board to design a system of parks and interconnected parkways to connect and preserve the existing natural landscape. Cleveland was a preservationist by nature, respecting the natural landscape features and using the existing topography and vegetation to keep his designs as natural as possible. When the park board considered building a photographic stand in the lower glen near the falls in 1889, he responded saying:</p><br>
<p>I learn that the park commission are seriously thinking of a building at Minnehaha for the express purpose of taking photographs—on the site heretofore profaned by a shanty for that purpose. I cannot remain silent in view of this proposed vandalism which I am sure you cannot sanction—and which I am equally sure will forever be a stigma upon Minneapolis and elicit the anathema of every man of sense and taste who visits the place. If erected it will simply be pandering to the tastes of the army of boobies who think to boost themselves into notoriety by connecting their own stupid features with the representation of one of the most beautiful of God&#39;s works.</p><br>
<p>The result of Cleveland&#39;s vision is the famous "Grand Rounds", an interconnected series of parkways and parks centered on the Mississippi River. This vision was expanded by subsequent park commissioners and superintendents to encircle a series of lakes, now known as the "Chain of Lakes", and to follow Minnehaha Creek to Minnehaha Falls. The area was designated as a National Scenic Byway in 1998, and the Minneapolis Grand Rounds is known today as one of the best urban park systems in the world.</p><br>
<h3>Acquisition and development</h3><br>
<p>When Minneapolis&#39; Park Board purchased Minnehaha Falls and surrounding land in 1889, it became one of the first state parks in the United States; only New York had created a state park by that time. The next summer the Park Board began to furnish the park with tables, seating, and lavatories. By 1893 a pavilion had been built and the park approved funding for two bridges "of a rustic nature", one above the falls and the other below. A refectory was built in 1905 to serve "refreshments of a clean and wholesome nature at a reasonable cost." In 1926 the park board designated the park to be a center for winter sports activities; plans were made to build a ski jump and the board purchased toboggans for rental. Major improvements including retaining walls, bridges, and stairs were made by federal Works Progress Administration (WPA) crews from 1936 to 1942.</p><br>
<p>While on the campaign trail in 1964, Lyndon B. Johnson and Minnesota Senator Hubert H. Humphrey visited the park on June 28. Johnson would go on to win the presidential election that year with Humphrey as his running mate. Their visit is commemorated with a plaque which reads:</p><br>
<p>President Lyndon B. Johnson, Senator Hubert H. Humphrey and Governor Karl Rolvaag enjoy the spray from Minnehaha Falls. On that day, however, Minneapolis was experiencing a drought. In order to create the beautiful spray of the falls pictured here the city had to open many fire hydrants upstream and out of sight, to feed water to the creek.</p><br>
<p>The park saw conflict in the 1960s when the highway department planned an elevated freeway between Minnehaha Park and Longfellow Gardens over Minnehaha Creek. The park board challenged the plan and brought the case to the USA Supreme Court. Fortunately for the park a similar case was decided in favor of the preservation of park land, thus setting a precedent, and the elevated freeway was never built. Eventually a highway was built in the late 1990s that routed the road through a tunnel over the creek and covered by a "land bridge". A new garden, the Longfellow Garden, was established on top of the land bridge.</p><br>
<p>Major improvements were also made in the 1990s. The Pergola Garden was created to feature native wildflowers and grasses. The parking lot that once overlooked the falls was removed, replaced by a garden and a low circular wall inscribed with Longfellows words. The old refectory was given a veranda and a bandshell was added. In 2007 a new river overlook was built in the Wabun picnic area and included a childrens playground.</p><br>
<p>In 2011 major restoration work on the park was completed. The crumbling historic retaining walls built by the WPA in the 1930s were reinforced, eroded stream banks were restored, natural seating areas made of limestone were added, and trails and paths were improved. Landscape improvements were also done: invasive plants were removed and replaced with native plantings with deeper roots to stabilize the stream banks and prevent erosion.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-2010s, more than 850,000 people visited Minnehaha Falls each year, and it continued to be the most photographed site in Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic and in the aftermath of protests over the murder of George Floyd, the park board passed a resolution permitting homeless encampments in city parks on an indefinite basis. Minnehaha Regional Park was one of several sites designated by the park board as capable of hosting an encampment for people experiencing homelessness.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Minnehaha Park is situated on the banks of the Mississippi River within the Minnehaha Historic District. Located between Hiawatha Avenue and the Minnehaha Parkway, the park includes Minnehaha Creek with its falls and glen. The 167-acre park is divided into two main portions: an upper section above the falls, with grassy open areas like many other city parks, and the lower 54-acre section which is for the most part allowed to maintain its natural state. The creek runs through the upper section and after it drops at the falls, it flows through the lower glen for another three-fourths of a mile.</p><br>
<p>Minnehaha Park is a popular site for weddings and cultural festivities. Minnesota is well known for its large population of Swedish immigrants. Since 1934 Swedes have celebrated Svenskarnas Dag (Swedish Heritage Day) at the park in June of each year. The park has a bandstand with free music concerts in the summer. Bicyclists use miles of off-street trails, including the former Milwaukee Road right-of-way, which leads to Fort Snelling State Park. Bikes are available for rent, and there is an off-leash dog park area. Also located within the park are reservable outdoor picnic sites, and picnic shelters for groups, as well as playgrounds and a summer wading pool for children. The falls freeze in the winter, making the park a popular year-round attraction.</p><br>
<p>At one time the park also featured a zoo and pony rides. In 1893 the Park Board gave permission for a Shetland pony concession and also began to accept gifts of animals for a zoo in the park. The zoo grew in size, and by 1899 a bear pit and an alligator tank had been added. Although very popular, when Theodore Wirth became the new park superintendent in 1906, the zoo was removed at his urging. The animals were donated to Longfellow Gardens, but a fenced area containing deer and elk remained until 1923. To this day the area is sometimes referred to as "the deer pen".</p><br>
<p>Between the 1930s and the 1950s there was also an "Auto Tourist Camp" where large numbers of tourists tented or stayed in small cabins. A park historian states that in those years "the camp was intended to appeal to the many tourists who were traveling the country in their new</p><br>
<p>automobiles". At one time there were several grist mills located on Minnehaha Creek. The remains of a stone and earth mill dam, built in the lower glen in 1853 or 1854, is still visible beside the creek.</p><br>
<p>Gardens in the upper park area include Longfellow Gardens, Minnehaha Falls Pergola Garden, and the Song of Hiawatha Garden. Other wild flowers include wild ginger, trout lilies, anemones, marsh marigold and various ferns and sedges. The Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board is working to remove invasive species that have been introduced into the park in order to promote a healthy environment so that native species may survive and grow.</p><br>
<p>The central feature of the park, Minnehaha Falls, lies several thousand feet upstream from its original mouth where it emptied into the Mississippi River 10,000 years ago at the end of the last Great Ice Age. Erosion below the falls has exposed Minnesota&#39;s geologic past from the present day back to over 450 million years ago, when Minnesota was covered with shallow seas.</p><br>
<p>Statues in the park include a bronze sculpture of Hiawatha and Minnehaha, by Jacob Fjelde depicting Hiawatha carrying Minnehaha. It was originally created in plaster for the Columbian Exposition in 1893, and cast in bronze and erected at the park in 1912. Other statues commemorate several notable figures including John H. Stevens, the first authorized resident on the west bank of the Mississippi River in what would become Minneapolis. He was granted permission to occupy the site, then part of the Fort Snelling military reservation, in exchange for providing ferry service to St. Anthony across the river. A statue of Swedish musician and poet Gunnar Wennerberg was placed in the park in 1915. A mask of Dakota leader Taoyateduta (Little Crow) was placed overlooking the falls in 1992.</p><br>
<p>While the name Minnehaha is often translated as "Laughing Water", the correct translation is "curling water" or "waterfall". The name comes from the Dakota language elements mni, meaning water, and ȟaȟa, meaning waterfall. Thus the expression "Minnehaha Falls" translates as "Waterfall Falls". The "Laughing Water" translation comes from Mary H. Eastmans book Dahcotah – Life and Legends of the Sioux Around Fort Snelling, published in 1849. The Dakota called Minnehaha Creek "Wakpa Cistinna", meaning "Little River". According to information provided by the National Park Service, an early missionary who had learned the Dakota language wrote: "The Indian name, Little Waterfall, is given... in speaking of the falls now called by white people Minnehaha&#39;. The Indians never knew it by the latter name, bestowed upon it by the whites."</p><br>
<h3>Minnehaha Creek and Falls</h3><br>
<p>Minnehaha Creek extends from Lake Minnetonka in the west and flows east for 22 miles (35 km) through several suburbs west of Minneapolis, and continuing through south Minneapolis. The watershed for the creek covers 181 square miles. Along the creek is a 53-foot (16-meter) waterfall, Minnehaha Falls, which is situated 3/4 of a mile from where the stream empties into the Mississippi River.</p><br>
<p>Minnehaha Falls is geologically linked to Saint Anthony Falls, which is the only waterfall on the Mississippi River. Roughly 10,000 years ago St. Anthony Falls was located several miles downstream on the Mississippi River at the confluence of the glacial River Warren (at present-day Ft. Snelling). Geologically, the area has a sandstone layer beneath a layer of limestone. Over the centuries, water in the river beds broke through the limestone layer, and the churning at the bottom of the falls ate away at the soft underlying sandstone. Eventually, the hard limestone cap was unsupported and broke off. Thus St. Anthony Falls receded, moving upstream at a rate of about 4 feet (1.2 m) per year. As St. Anthony Falls on the Mississippi River moved past Minnehaha Creek, a second falls was created, Minnehaha Falls, which also continued to move upstream to its present site in the park.</p><br>
<p>An island in the Mississippi River near Minnehaha Creek once existed; the receding St. Anthony Falls divided into two as it passed around the island. The falls in the channel farthest from Minnehaha Creek reached the upstream end of the island first, cutting off water to the west channel and resulting in an "abandoned waterfall" at the north end of the channel. The abandoned west channel is now a grassy cul-de-sac known as the "Deer Pen". Locating the abandoned waterfall was made difficult in recent years since the Deer Pen was partially filled with tons of fill dirt from nearby construction projects. Today, the mouth of Minnehaha Creek where it joins the Mississippi River is the lowest surface point in the city of Minneapolis at 686 ft (209 m) above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Erosion within the last century has resulted in a falls that is fairly narrowly channeled and vigorous, notably after a heavy rain. Photographs of the waterfall from the 19th century show a much wider, curtain like character to the falls. When the creek is dry, the older, much-broader ledge can be observed. If there were sufficient interest and funding, some remedial work could theoretically restore the 19th-century appearance of the falls.</p><br>
<p>Due to extremely cold winter temperatures, the falls freeze, creating a dramatic cascade of ice that can last well into the spring. If there is a rain shortage in the autumn, the falls may virtually dry up. In the summer, especially in the rainy months of June and July, the flow can be surprisingly forceful.</p><br>
<p>On June 19, 2014, professional kayaker Hunt Jennings descended the waterfall in a kayak when it was at record height due to several days of heavy rain. The only injury sustained by Jennings was a small cut above his upper lip. A spokesperson for the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board commented, "We are deeply concerned that this act and subsequent publicity will inspire others to attempt the same feat. The impact of the drop, the large boulders at the base of the Falls, the deep water and fast current could easily injure or kill a kayaker."</p><br>
<h2>Park geology</h2><br>
<p>Visitors to the park can view the ancient geological history of Minnesota as they walk the path leading from the falls down to the Mississippi River. The uppermost layer of soils and gravels of Minnesota were deposited by the most recent Ice Age, about 10,000 years ago. Four great ice ages have swept away all traces of the more recent Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras in the Twin Cities area, however standing at the upper falls, one is standing directly on the Platteville Limestone Formation laid down during the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era. During the Ordovician Period, about 450 million years ago, the North American continent was situated along the equator and a warm shallow sea covered much of Minnesota. Sea life was abundant and a large number of marine fossils including corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, clams, snails, cephalopods, and trilobites can be found in the limestone and shale sediments at several areas in the Twin Cities and along the Mississippi River in the park.</p><br>
<p>Descending to the base of the falls one passes through the layered Platteville Limestone Formation and a thin layer of Glenwood Shale. At the base of the falls one enters the level of the Saint Peter Sandstone Formation of pure white quartz sandstone. The Minnesota St. Peter Sandstone is "famous the world over as the example of a well-rounded, well-sorted, pure quartz sand. It is the Ivory Snow of sediments, because it is close to 99.44% pure". This sand was first deposited as beach sand, probably eroded from earlier Cambrian sandstones, along the shores of the Ordovician sea.</p><br>
<p>At places in the park, especially closer to the Mississippi River, one can see the Glenwood Shale Formation. This thin layer of grey-green rock was probably deposited in deeper-water offshore from the beaches, and now has been exposed by erosion. Together, the three formations that are visible as one walks from the falls to the river represent a sequence of sea-level rise which occurred during the Ordovician period.</p><br>
<p>A fourth geological layer that lies above the Platteville limestone, Decorah shale, can also be found in the park. The Decorah shale formation is so packed with fossils that it has been called "fossil hash". It has been washed away directly at the falls area but can be found above the Plattville limestone in the exposed river bank below Fort Snelling.</p><br>
<h2>Historical buildings</h2><br>
<h3>Minnehaha Depot</h3><br>
<p>A small train station officially named Minnehaha Depot and also known as "the Princess Depot" was built around 1875; it was a stop on the Milwaukee Road railroad and provided easy access to the park from Fort Snelling and Minneapolis. The depot handled as many as 39 round trips per day. The interior is complete and well-preserved, containing an iron heating stove, waiting room benches and a ticket window. In 1964, the title was transferred to the Minnesota Historical Society. The Minnesota Transportation Museum assisted in the restoration of the building, and today provides historic interpretation. The depot is open in the summer on Sundays from 1:30 to 4:30. The 50th Street / Minnehaha Park light rail station of the METRO Blue Line currently serves the park.</p><br>
<h3>Longfellow House</h3><br>
<p>Despite its name, the Longfellow House was never home to the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow; it was instead the home of Robert F. Jones, a Minneapolis philanthropist and entrepreneur. Built in 1907, the houses facade was designed to resemble Longfellows home in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Originally the home was part of Jones&#39; private 4.6-acre botanical garden and zoological park near Minnehaha Falls. After Jones died, the home fell into disrepair. His will gave the property to the city which used the house as part of the Minneapolis public library from 1936 to 1967. The house was moved in 1994 and renovated. It opened as an information center in 2001. Today the home serves as the home of a botanical art school and provides offices for the Minneapolis Parks Foundation. The Longfellow House and John H. Stevens House also co-sponsor 90-minute historic nature walks around the park.</p><br>
<h3>John Harrington Stevens House</h3><br>
<p>The John Harrington Stevens House, built in 1849 or 1850 near St. Anthony Falls (on the site where the Minneapolis Post Office now sits), was moved to Minnehaha Park in 1896. According to the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board, the home has the distinction of being the first wood-frame dwelling built west of the Mississippi. John H. Stevens was granted permission to build his house on land controlled by Fort Snelling in exchange for providing ferry service across the Mississippi River. In subsequent years it became a hub of civic and social activity. Dubbed the "Birthplace of Minneapolis", both Hennepin County and Minneapolis were organized in Stevens&#39; home; it was in this home that the name Minneapolis was suggested.</p><br>
<p>In 1896 over 10,000 school children helped pull the house to its present location in Minnehaha Park. The children were divided into seven relay teams, each consisting of around 1,000 pupils. As teams finished their designated distance, they dropped the ropes and boarded trolley cars for the park. All went well until "the lads from the South Side High School" refused to give up the ropes to the next relay team. The Minneapolis Tribune reported the event:</p><br>
<p>At this point there was something of unexpected interest. Waving their school flag in triumph from the gable window of the old building the lads from the South Side High School shouted their school yell and BAD DEFIANCE TO ALL COMERS. At this point the Central High School scholars were billed to relieve the South Siders, and consequently surrounded the building. The spirit of school rivalry broke out, strong and bitter. The South Siders refused to surrender the fortress and flaunted their banner from the window in spite of all entreaties and orders. Contractor Pratt could not oust them. Supt. Jordan could not oust them, and finally Sergeant Martinson called for a detail of police and made a rush for the house. But the South Side lads were still game, and did not give up until several had been made to feel the force of police authority. Then they made a break. As they dashed from one door the Centrals entered by the other, and their banner was soon flying from the gable amid vociferous cheers. The South Siders were chased up the street by a detachment of Centrals, and for a moment it looked as if the rush would result in some bruised heads. However, good nature was restored and again the house started on its way.</p><br>
<p>The house arrived in the park at 3 pm along with the last relay team of children, having covered a distance of four miles. In the evening, 1,000 Japanese lanterns were placed about the park and the festivities included fireworks and an illumination of the falls. The Tribune newspaper reported that some people complained about the children having a day out of school and "...the park commissioners and the park policemen objected to the way in which the children took possession of the park and everything in it. There was no such thing as controlling them, and they ran over everything in sight. It would have taken a small regiment of policemen to have kept that throng in check."</p><br>
<p>The house was heavily damaged by three acts of arson in 2022 and required extensive renovations to repair walls, ceilings, and voids.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>Inman Square is a neighborhood and historic district in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It lies north of Central Square, at the junction of Cambridge, Hampshire, and Inman Streets near the Cambridge&ndash;Somerville border.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Like many squares in the Boston area, Inman Square refers both to an intersection and to a retail district and neighborhood. Current residents of the area seem to converge on a broad definition of Inman Square as the region centered on the intersection of Cambridge and Hampshire Streets.</p><br>
<p>Geologically, the area is part of the larger Boston Basin and attaches to the relative lowland known as the Cambridge Plain. Originally, the land was both flat and surrounded by an irregular, swampy region that formed a natural boundary. Situated a short walk east of Harvard Square, north of Central Square, south of Union Square, and west of Lechmere (also known as East Cambridge), Inman Square is fairly centralized within the Mid-Cambridge/Somerville area. Hampshire Street connects it with Porter Square to the northwest and Kendall Square to the southeast.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>Inman Square likely owes its name to Ralph Inman (1713–1788), described as a gentleman of fortune and a Boston merchant. The details of his life can be pieced together from articles in the New England and Genealogical Register, vols. 12, 14, 25, 26, 30, 55, 84, 112, and 136, as well as numerous other sources. He had extensive business interests along the Boston wharf and with Thomas Sodden owned 400 acre making up "what is now the Port."</p><br>
<p>Inman also owned a "large, three-story rambling mansion" in a "little genteel Town about 4 Miles off (from Boston) calld Cambridge, where a number of Gentlemen&#39;s Families live upon their Estates." This included the Brattles, after whom Brattle Square was named.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolutionary War, in 1775, American general Israel Putnam took over Inman&#39;s house as his headquarters. Inman was intent on remaining neutral in the war, but his intentions went for naught when his son joined the British Army, causing authorities to begin confiscating his property. He fled, leaving his wife, Elizabeth Murray, to deal with General Putnam and protect the property.</p><br>
<p>Inman&#39;s wife, his second, was a business woman in her own right. Elizabeth Murray owned the sugar warehouse in Boston that the British troops took over as a barracks when they came to settle the unrest in Boston. It was from there that they marched to the Battles of Lexington and Concord. When her husband fled to Boston to seek protection from the British, Elizabeth Murray protected the Cambridge property. After the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Continental Army confiscated the property and her husband fled with the British to Halifax. She remained in America until she died in 1785.</p><br>
<p>An extensive description of the house is given in NE & GR, July 1871, vol. 25, page 232. "On the Inman street side" and "looking toward Boston road" are mentioned. It was "the first object of any interest in approaching the colleges from Boston..." At the time of the description, 6 acre were still attached to it. Inman died there in 1788. His wife predeceased him.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>Inman Squares origins lie in the growth of East Cambridge, starting at around 1790, when a group of financiers led by Andrew Craigie began buying up land around Lechmere Point, home to present-day CambridgeSide Galleria shopping mall, in an effort to build a toll bridge over the Charles River. After Craigies bridge was built, he constructed roads from the Lechmere area that had been laid out with a gridwork of streets. One of these roads was the Middlesex Turnpike, the present-day Hampshire Street, which connected Cambridge with Lowell and Boston, bringing regional traffic through the area. Craigie also laid out Cambridge Street, which would intersect with Hampshire, producing Inman Square in 1809.</p><br>
<p>By the 1860s, horse carts were common in the area and contributed to dwellings popping up along their routes. By 1900, full streetcar service was in the area, led by the Charles River Street Railway, which built its first railway through Inman Square in 1881. By 1874 the region was an urban center called both "Atwood&#39;s Corner" and "Inman Square." This ambiguity was fixed a year later in a petition that would make official the Inman Square moniker.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>After transportation brought people and commerce to the region, a new era of stability overtook Inman Square. From 1910 up until the early 1950s, streetcar, automobile, and foot traffic shuffled people to and from the square where architectural instead of transportation construction was taking place. During this period commercial dwellings popped up to service the local community: drugstores, taverns, markets, bakeries, delis, and an insurance company were among the many stores that called Inman Square home.</p><br>
<p>After the streetcars left Cambridge Street around 1950 the square became "just a little bit out of the way" yet remained "around the corner from Harvard, Central, Kendall and Lechmere." Even though there is no direct rapid transit, three MBTA bus lines (69, 83, 91) stop in the square, making it accessible by mass transit. Post-streetcar visitors still regularly frequent the area&#39;s restaurant and entertainment attractions.</p><br>
<p>The regional restaurant chain Legal Sea Foods began in Inman Square in 1950 as a fish market that also did a takeout business. Legal Sea Foods grew to a chain of 31 restaurants, including those in Kendall Square and in Copley Square in Boston, as well as in suburbs and cities throughout the region. After the original Legal Sea Foods location burned in a fire, it was rebuilt and became Cambridge Family Health. An ornate fish on the building facade at 237 Hampshire Street commemorates the previous presence.</p><br>
<p>From the 1960s through the late 1970s, next to Legal Seafoods one could find the home of the improvisational troupe The Proposition. Alumni of the troupe include actors Josh Mostel, Judith Kahan Paul Kreppel and original Saturday Night Live cast member Jane Curtin. Later, in the 1980s, at the Ding Ho restaurant at 11 Springfield Street (where Ole Mexican Grill is presently located), such comedians as Steven Wright, Jimmy Tingle, Bobcat Goldthwait, and club founder Barry Crimmins got their start. Most, including future Tonight Show host Jay Leno, began by performing between sets of musical acts at the "Ding", as it was known to locals. Lenos first stage appearance took place there between sets of JTs Mardi Gras Band and the Lawnchair Ladies.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>Inman Square is a culturally diverse neighborhood, home to professionals, working people, and students and professors from neighboring MIT and Harvard. Inman Square also has strong Brazilian and Portuguese influences, as can be seen in the storefronts lining Cambridge Street, especially to the east of Prospect Street.</p><br>
<p>Bostons oldest continuously operating improvisational theater troupe, ImprovBoston, moved in 2008 from its longtime home in Inman Square to Prospect Street in nearby Central Square. ImprovBoston alumni include Wait Wait... Dont Tell Me! panelist Adam Felber.</p><br>
<p>Inman Square was also home to the Center for New Words (originally the New Words Bookstore), one of the oldest and longest-running women&#39;s bookstores in the country. Located at 186 Hampshire Street, it closed its retail business in the early 2000s. Meanwhile, from 2003 to early 2006, the Zeitgeist Gallery resided at 1353 Cambridge Street, after a fire drove it from its former home at the corner of Norfolk Street and Broadway. Run by a group of artists, musicians and activists, it was a focal point for art, music and community activism, and fostered avant garde, experimental and underground work.</p><br>
<p>A related space called Zeitgeist Outpost or Outpost 186, opened by former Zeitgeist volunteers, is now on the other side of Inman Square. It is, in fact, in the former New Words back room, where the women&#39;s bookstore once held poetry readings, author presentations and acoustic concerts.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, the neighborhood near Inman Square attained some notoriety as the home of the two main suspects in the Boston Marathon bombing</p><br>
<p>and the location of the Islamic Society of Boston, at which they occasionally attended services.</p><br>
<p>In 2023, Edge of the Forest, a 12-foot-tall steel sculpture of a deer by Brooklyn-based artist Mark Reigelman was installed in Inman Square. The sculpture was inspired by one of the squares former names, "Atwoods Corner," with Atwood being a traditional surname for someone "at the wood." The piece was funded via the City of Cambridge’s Percent-for-Art ordinance, which requires that 1 percent of costs of municipal construction projects be spent to develop public artwork.</p><br>
<p>The Waikiki Natatorium War Memorial is a war memorial in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, built in the form of an ocean water public swimming pool. The Natatorium was built as a living memorial dedicated to "the men and women who served during the great war" .</p><br>
<h2>Creation of the memorial</h2><br>
<p>In March 1918, the Daughters and Sons of Hawaiian Warriors first proposed a memorial to the more than 10,000 men from the then Territory of Hawaii who volunteered to serve in the great war. The Honolulu Ad Club agreed with the idea and on November 20, 1918, appointed an investigative committee led by Colonel Howard Hathaway, Ned Loomis, and W.D. Westervelt to bring together representatives from all civic organizations to collaborate on the concept of a memorial beginning with a conference which was held on December 6, 1918. At this meeting, Colonel Hathway was appointed Chairman and Fred W. Beckley was appointed Secretary of the general committee on a war memorial.</p><br>
<p>At the second meeting, a subcommittee was formed to investigate and prepare a report on the design and cost estimates of a war memorial. This subcommittee included:</p><br>
<p>Princess Kalanianaole</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Walter Macfarlane</p><br>
<p>Mrs. A. A. Young</p><br>
<p>Mrs. J.M. Dowsett</p><br>
<p>C.R. Hemenway</p><br>
<p>Senator John H. Wise</p><br>
<p>J.D. McInerny</p><br>
<p>Upon the report of the subcommittee, a plan to acquire the former William G. Irwin Estate (located between the shoreline and Kapiolani Park in Waikiki) for a public park for the memorial gained unanimous support. To pursue the idea, John Guild, Mrs. Walter Macfarlane, Mrs. John Baird, Mrs. A.G.M. Robertson, and Alexander Rume Ford took the lead in pursuing the property.</p><br>
<p>A bill passed through the territorial legislature with "practical unanimity" according to the Historical Commission of Honolulu. The act was signed by the governor on April 29, 1919, providing for the acquisition of the Irwin property through the sale of territorial bonds and provided that the property should be named "Memorial Park" for the memorial concept being discussed by the committee on a war memorial.</p><br>
<p>Memorial Park was formally dedicated on the first anniversary of the signing of the armistice with the dedication organized by the recently formed organization, the American Legion.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, with the memorial&#39;s site now acquired, a committee to study and recommend designs for the memorial itself was organized. The Honolulu Historical Commission, Territory of Hawaii, lists the members of the memorial committee as:</p><br>
<p>J.K. Butler</p><br>
<p>L.S. Cain</p><br>
<p>A.L.C. Atkinson</p><br>
<p>A.T. Longley</p><br>
<p>H.P. O&#39;Sullivan</p><br>
<p>Norman Watkins</p><br>
<p>Senator L.M. Judd</p><br>
<p>J.R. Galt</p><br>
<p>L.B. Reeves</p><br>
<p>Alexander May</p><br>
<p>R.L. Richards</p><br>
<p>G.H. Angus</p><br>
<p>Sherwood Lowrey</p><br>
<p>R.N. Burnham for the Rotary Club</p><br>
<p>Milo Vanek for the Ad Club</p><br>
<p>Gordon Usborne for the Hawaiian Academy of Art and Design.</p><br>
<p>After much deliberation, the committee reported its final recommendation for the war memorial. According to the Historical Commission of the Territory of Hawaii, "the scheme evolved called for a memorial natatorium with a pavilion and attractive landscaping of Memorial Park, the swimming pool itself to be of Olympic proportions".</p><br>
<p>On the opening day of the 1921 Territorial Legislature, Senator L.M. Judd introduced a bill for the construction of a war memorial at Memorial Park, to be funded by issuing territorial bonds. The bill specified that the memorial is to be dedicated to "the men and women of Hawaii who served during the great war" which was an expansion from the initial concept which was to honor the men of Hawaii who died in service during World War I.</p><br>
<p>The bill was passed by both houses of the legislature and signed by the governor on March 15, 1921, becoming Act 15.</p><br>
<p>Act 15, set three requirements for the design of the memorial:</p><br>
<p>It is to be located at Memorial Park, Waikiki</p><br>
<p>That it "shall contain a swimming course of at least 100 meters&quot and</p><br>
<p>All other design elements were to be determined by a design contest with features chosen by a Territorial War Commission appointed by the Governor.</p><br>
<h2>Territorial War Memorial Commission</h2><br>
<p>Act 15 provided for the formation of a Territorial War Memorial Commission to determine the features of the memorial beyond the requirements set out by law: the swimming course of 100 meters and the location. Governor Charles J. McCarthy appointed the members of the commission:</p><br>
<p>A. Lester Marks, Chairman</p><br>
<p>John R. Galt, Secretary</p><br>
<p>A.L.C. Atkinson, later replaced by J.K. Butler</p><br>
<p>Louis Christian Mullgardt, a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), was appointed as an advisory architect to prepare a general scheme for the park and to plan and execute a competition following the rules set forth by the AIA.</p><br>
<p>The jury to determine the winning design was composed of:</p><br>
<p>The Governor of the Territory of Hawaii</p><br>
<p>The Mayor of Honolulu</p><br>
<p>Architect Bernard R. Maybeck of San Francisco</p><br>
<p>Architect Ellis F. Lawrence of Portland</p><br>
<p>Architect W. R. B. Willcox of Seattle</p><br>
<p>The jury selected the design by San Francisco architect Lewis P. Hobart as the first prize.</p><br>
<p>"It reveals a fine, discriminating taste and ability in architectural design, and in such landscape treatment as reflects the highly individual color and flavor of Hawaii and Honolulu; it forecasts a memorial which will sustain an appropriate interest into the distant future, and perpetuate the noble thought and purpose which animated the original conception of the project." - The judges of the War Memorial Commission&#39;s design contest of the winning design by Architect Lewis P. Hobart</p><br>
<h2>Current state</h2><br>
<p>Located in Honolulu, at the shore west of Kapiolani Park and completed in 1927, the natatorium was built in the Hawaiian Beaux-Arts architectural style. The entrance to the memorial includes an arch featuring four stone eagles typical of this style.</p><br>
<p>Inside the memorial is a 100-meter by 40-meter saltwater swimming pool. In the opening ceremonies on August 24, 1927, the local Olympic gold medal holder Duke Kahanamoku made the first swim (it was his birthday).</p><br>
<p>In the following swim meet, world record holder Johnny Weissmuller won the 100, 400 and 800-meter events, and Buster Crabbe (also local) won the 1500 meters.</p><br>
<p>After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the natatorium was taken over by the US Army and used for training during World War II. In 1949 it was refurbished and turned over to the City and County of Honolulu on July 1, 1949. Its condition deteriorated, and was officially closed in 1963, but continued to be used.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places listings in Oahu on August 11, 1980, as site 80001283.</p><br>
<p>There have been several proposals to demolish the structure, while others argue for its preservation and repair.</p><br>
<p>For generations, the natatorium was a popular recreational gathering center for residents and tourists. However, it closed to the public in 1979 due to safety concerns and city council political support has oscillated between renovation and demolition of the structure.</p><br>
<h3>2018–2019 Renovation and reopening draft study</h3><br>
<p>In 2018–2019, the City and County of Honolulu began a study to see about reopening the memorial, which has been closed to the public since approximately 1979. The draft study is available online and allows the city to proceed with research on alternatives that will allow the memorial to be brought into a usable condition and to resolve hazards that prevent the memorial from being a proud representation and tribute to WW1 veterans.</p><br>
<p>The EIS study notes the "significant and adverse" socio-cultural impact if no action is taken to improve the dilapidated structure. The city mayor estimates the preferred option of renovation to cost around USD 25.6 million.</p><br>
<h2>Kaimana Beach</h2><br>
<p>Adjacent to the south of the Natatorium lies Kaimana Beach, a popular destination for the resident Honolulu population of the Kaimuki, Manoa, Diamond Head and other surrounding communities. Kaimana is a sandy beach lined with palms with a lifeguard tower, showers and public parking.</p><br>
<p>Kaimana Beach was originally a rocky beach with a narrow strip of sand. It is also known as Sans Souci Beach, (French for "without worries") for the hotel once run by George Lycurgus in 1893, named in turn after the Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam.</p><br>
<p>After the Waikiki War Memorial Natatorium was built adjacent to Kaimana and just off the shoreline, the beach was able to accumulate a vastly wider sandy beach which makes it so popular today. The name Kaimana is not an ancient Hawaiian name for the area, but is rather the Hawaiian pronunciation of the English name for the nearby Diamond Head. The former Sans Souci site is now the New Otani Kaimana Beach Hotel.</p><br>
<p>Kaimana Beach was the end point of the first submarine communications cable between California and Hawaii. Duke Kahanamokus uncle, David Piikoi, was said to have been the person who dragged the underwater cable through Kapua Channel and onto Kaimanas shore in 1902. The first telegraphic message over this new cable was sent on January 1, 1903, from Henry Ernest Cooper to President Theodore Roosevelt in Washington, DC.</p><br>
<p>Waikiki War Memorial Natatorium.jpgWaikiki Natatorium in 2010</p><br>
<p>Sunrise at the Waikiki Natatorium.jpgSunrise at the Waikiki Natatorium in 2021</p><br>
<p>The Hawaii Theatre is a theatre in downtown Honolulu, Hawaii, United States. Built in 1922, it is located at 1130 Bethel Street, between Hotel and Pauahi Streets, on the edge of Chinatown. It is listed on the State and National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>When Consolidated Amusement Company opened the Hawaii Theatre on September 6, 1922, local newspapers called it "The Pride of the Pacific" and considered it the equal in opulence to any theatre in San Francisco or beyond.</p><br>
<p>Honolulu architects Walter Emory and Marshall Webb employed elements of Neoclassical architecture for the exterior&mdash;with Byzantine, Corinthian, and Moorish ornamentation&mdash;and a rich panoply of Beaux-Arts architecture inside&mdash;Corinthian columns, a gilded dome, marble statuary, an art gallery, plush carpets, silk hangings, and a Lionel Walden mural above the proscenium. The interior was wide and shallow, with a single balcony and two rows of loge boxes. On the main floor, two private boxes flanked the stage.</p><br>
<p>The exterior originally had a simple canopy with a small reader board listing the attractions, and a vertical sign lit by electric bulbs. In 1938, a large, new marquee was installed with the largest neon display in the islands.</p><br>
<p>The Hawaii Theatre presented both Vaudeville entertainment and silent films through the 1920s. It had its own full orchestra for live shows and a large Robert-Morton pipe organ used to accompany silent films. Following the introduction of sound films, it operated as a downtown movie theatre through the 1960s.</p><br>
<h2>Decline and Revival</h2><br>
<p>With the shift in entertainment and retail venues away from downtown beginning in the 1960s, theatre attendance gradually declined into the 1970s and early 1980s. Consolidated Amusement decided not to renew its lease and the Hawaii Theatre closed in 1984. The theatre reopened in 1996, while exterior renovations continued through 2005. The large marquee from 1938, which had deteriorated and been removed, was replicated and installed, and featured new electronic display panels.</p><br>
<h2>Current Operation and Accolades</h2><br>
<p>The Hawaii Theatre is once again a popular venue for stage shows and concerts, and continues today as a successful performing arts center.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, the League of Historic America Theatres named it the "Outstanding Historic Theatre in America&quot in 2006, the National Trust for Historic Preservation gave the Hawaii Theatre its highest "Honor Award" for national preservation; and in 2006, the Hawaii Better Business Bureau presented its "Torch Award for Business Ethics" to the Hawaii Theatre Center, the first small nonprofit to receive that award.</p><br>
<p>The Hawaii Theatre is the last surviving, operating historic theatre in Honolulu. Guided tours of the theatre are regularly offered.</p><br>
<p>The Minnesota State Capitol is the seat of government for the USA state of Minnesota, in its capital city of Saint Paul. It houses the Minnesota Senate, Minnesota House of Representatives, the office of the Attorney General and the office of the Governor. The building also includes a chamber for the Minnesota Supreme Court, although court activities usually take place in the neighboring Minnesota Judicial Center.</p><br>
<p>There have been three State Capitol buildings. The present building was designed by architect Cass Gilbert and completed in 1905. Its Beaux-Arts/American Renaissance design was influenced by the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and by McKim, Mead & Whites Rhode Island State House. From 2013 to 2017 the building underwent an extensive restoration. This included replacing existing infrastructure; adding new mechanical systems; replacing or repairing tens of thousands of pieces of marble on the exterior; cleaning historic paintings, murals, and sculptures; and adding safety and accessibility features.</p><br>
<p>The building is set in a landscaped campus with the Capitol Mall on its south front, Leif Erikson Park on its west, and Judicial Plaza to its east. Various monuments and memorials are located in these green spaces.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>First Minnesota State Capitol</h3><br>
<p>The current State Capitol building is the third building to serve this purpose. The territorial legislature first met in a temporary headquarters in the Central House Hotel. In 1851, work began to oversee finances and the hiring of contractors to build the Capitol. Its architect, N. C. Prentiss drew up specifications for the new Capitol. Exterior details included brick work, cut stone floors and steps for the porches, a wood pediment, wood Ionic-style columns, and a well-framed roof covered with fireproof material. Interior work called for Norway pine flooring and staircases of oak and ash with oak handrails and turned balusters. The legislature moved into the new Capitol in time for the 5th territorial legislative session on January 4, 1854.</p><br>
<p>The population boomed after Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858, and the Capitol building was expanded with a new wing on the Exchange Street side of the building in 1873 and a second wing facing Wabasha Street in 1878.</p><br>
<p>Despite efforts to make the Capitol fire-resistant, it was destroyed by fire on March 1, 1881. While legislators met in the evening, fire broke out in the dome of the Capitol and quickly spread. There were no deaths, but efforts to save the building failed. It was replaced on the same site in 1883 by the second Capitol building.</p><br>
<h3>Second Minnesota State Capitol</h3><br>
<p>After fire destroyed Minnesota&#39;s first Capitol building, the second Capitol, a three-story, Romanesque, masonry building designed by Leroy Buffington, was completed in 1883 on the site of the first Capitol. Buffington designed the new building in the shape of a Greek cross. It featured a foundation of cut stone and walls of red brick with Dresbach sandstone trim. Each wing measured 150 feet in length. The main entrance on the southwest from Wabasha Street opened onto the first floor, where the governor, attorney general, auditor, treasurer, and secretary of state had offices. The Assembly (House of Representatives) chamber in the southeast wing featured a twenty-five-foot ceiling with a large stained glass skylight. The Senate chamber in the southwest wing was finished in yellow birch and birdseye maple. The Supreme Court chamber in the southeast wing featured woodwork of cherry and Hungarian ash.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after it opened, deficiencies of the new building were becoming clear. Overcrowding due to a lack of space, a lack of adequate fireproofing, and the discovery of dry rot made the building increasing unacceptable. Additionally, poor ventilation led in the push for a new Capitol building in 1893. It had served as the seat of Minnesota state government for just 10 years before state officials began planning a grander, more efficient Capitol. After the completion of the third State Capitol in 1905, the state used the old Capitol for meeting space, storage, and parking until its demolition in 1937. The site for the first and second Capitol buildings eventually became home to the former Arts and Science Building and McNally Smith Music Academy.</p><br>
<h3>Third Minnesota State Capitol</h3><br>
<p>The present state Capitol was designed by Cass Gilbert, whose design was selected by the Board of State Capitol Commissioners over 41 other submissions. Butler-Ryan Construction was selected as the contractor. Work began on the capitol in 1896, its corner-stone laid July 27, 1898, and construction was completed in 1905. The construction cost US$4.5 million. It opened its doors to the public for the first time on January 2, 1905. In 1893 Governor Knute Nelson appointed the seven-member Board of State Capitol Commissioners to oversee the construction of a new Capitol following the recommendation of the state legislature. The board oversaw every aspect of the work. This included supervising the expenditures, acquiring property, setting building specifications, selecting the architect and general contractor, and giving final approval for the type of stone to use on the exterior, as well as the art and artists.</p><br>
<p>The site selected by the commission was "Wabasha Hill", bounded by Park Avenue, University Avenue, Cedar and Wabasha Streets, and Central Avenue. While this was the costliest of the four sites considered for the Capitol, it was the largest, and the Commission concluded that it was the best location for the building. Dozens of companies and hundreds of workers worked to complete the statehouse. Six workers were killed in accidents between 1898 and 1903 as a result of unsafe working conditions.</p><br>
<p>Upon completion, the building drew praise from the architecture community, leading to requests for Gilbert to design Capitol buildings for other states, such as West Virginia and Arkansas, and other notable structures.</p><br>
<p>Originally, the Capitol housed all the executive offices and the three branches of state government, state agencies and commissions, and the Minnesota Historical Society. Expansion of offices and meeting rooms, reconstruction of chambers, and subdivision of corridors occurred as early as the 1930s. As needs expanded, the state agencies and commissions, and over half of the executive offices, moved out of the Capitol to other buildings. One of the first to leave was the Minnesota Historical Society, which relocated to its own building (now the Minnesota Judicial Center) next to the Capitol in 1915. Most recently, the offices of the Senate moved to the newly constructed Minnesota Senate Building in January 2016.</p><br>
<p>The structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building&#39;s structure consists of a steel and cast iron frame on rough limestone foundation walls resting on concrete footings. Guastavino tile vaulting forms the ceilings on both the ground and first floor. The structural elements of a building primarily consist of load-bearing brick and stone masonry walls and piers supporting steel-framed floor and roof systems. Care given in the construction of the original structure was so great that even far removed mechanical spaces not intended to be seen by the public were designed and built with a high standard of finish and design.</p><br>
<p>East to west, the Capitol is more than 430 ft long. From ground level to the top of the dome&#39;s lantern measures 220 ft. Inside, the building has more than 300,000 ft&sup2; of floor space, or about 5,000,000 cuft of space.</p><br>
<p>The Minnesota State Capitol dome is the second largest self-supported marble dome in the world, behind Saint Peters Basilica in the Vatican, on which Gilbert based his design. The dome itself is actually made up of three domes or layers. The outer layer is a self-supporting dome made of Georgia marble blocks resting upon their own weight. Hidden inside is a brick and steel cone that supports the lantern and golden sphere at the top of the dome and provides an internal water drainage system, which helps avoid the heaving problem created by the freezing and thawing of Minnesota winters. Below that is the decorative masonry dome that can be seen from the inside, looking up from the rotunda. At the domes base are 12 marble eagles paired with the columns surrounding the drum of the dome. At the dome&#39;s top is a columned stone lantern which is then topped by a finial globe covered in gold leaf.</p><br>
<p>Because it was just over 30 years after the American Civil War when the building was designed, Gilbert drew ire for choosing marble from Georgia rather than native Minnesota granite for the exterior. Gilbert insisted on using Georgia white marble, saying that the use of a darker color would make it look "glooming and forbidding." A compromise was made with native granite for the steps and the base and interior walls of Kasota limestone, while using the Georgia white marble for the vast majority of the buildings’ exterior.</p><br>
<p>The steps of the two grand staircases in the east and west wings of the Capitol are made of Hauteville limestone, which resembles the Kasota limestone used through the walls of the Capitol but can take more wear. The 36 variegated columns surrounding the grand staircases are made from Breche Violette marble from Italy.</p><br>
<p>In the rotunda, the giant columns in the four open spaces are made from Minnesota granite. The deep bronze columns on the north and south were quarried near Ortonville, Minnesota and the purplish gray columns on the east and west were quarried near Rockville, Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>Dividing the statuary niches and the Kasota stone walls in the rotunda from the "Civilization of the Northwest" murals above them is a line of Sioux Quartzite from a quarry in Jasper, Minnesota. Previously it was thought to be Catlinite/Pipestone, which is prized by Native Americans, primarily those of the Plains nations for use in making ceremonial pipes. During the 2013-2017 renovation, the stone was tested and found not to be Catlinite.</p><br>
<h2>Artwork</h2><br>
<p>The State Capitol opened in 1905 with roughly 60 artworks that totaled $300,000, or 7% of the $4.5-million project budget. Over the years, more art has been added to the Capitol, totaling nearly 150 pieces in 2017.</p><br>
<p>Gilbert sought out many of the finest artists of the period, such as Kenyon Cox, Elmer Garnsey, Edwin Howland Blashfield, Henry Oliver Walker, Edward Emerson Simmons, John La Farge, Douglas Volk, Francis D. Millet, Howard Pyle, and Rufus Fairchild Zogbaum.</p><br>
<p>Much of the original art is allegorical. Gilberts trips to Europe encouraged his ideas, but he was more directly influenced by the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago. In particular, the inspiration for the Minnesota quadriga, a group of figures entitled Progress of the State, was the Columbus Quadriga, a statue depicting Christopher Columbus standing in a four horse chariot guided by two maidens carrying staffs of victory, that Daniel Chester French and Edward Clark Potter had modeled for the World&#39;s Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. Gilbert saw this quadriga group at the Exposition and made plans to have artists adapt it for Minnesota.</p><br>
<p>As work continued on the interior, multiple groups, notably American Civil War veterans, the Minnesota Historical Society, and some politicians, demanded that the artwork in the Capitol illustrate historic events of Minnesotas past. The current ornate look of the Governors Reception Room was partly a response to Minnesotans suggestions for pictures from their own history which gave Gilbert the opportunity to upscale his plans for the room and to include six large paintings that span 200 years of the area&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>In 1944, the custom of displaying governors&#39; portraits in the public corridors was initiated. In 1971, the Capitol Area Architectural Planning Board and the Minnesota Historical Society were entrusted to approve design, structural composition and location of all works of art.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<p>The Governors Reception Room, arguably the most elaborately decorated in the building, is a ceremonial room, designed for state receptions, proclamations, and press conferences.</p><br>
<p>Gilbert designed the elaborately decorated room, which was inspired by his earlier vacation in Europe, on the lines of a Venetian Council Chamber, with stained white oak woodwork and heavy molding gilded with gold leaf framing historical paintings.</p><br>
<p>The rooms ornate look was partly a response to Minnesotans suggestions for pictures from their own history. Originally Gilbert had planned for the room to be much more modest. "The executive rooms should be finished in perfectly plain color without elaborate decoration of any kind," Gilbert wrote in a 1903 letter to the Board. Responding to popular demand, the Board of State Capitol Commissioners authorized six paintings by four nationally known artists. Gilbert prepared plans for a more ornate room to accommodate paintings of historical subject matter, which were originally considered for the lunettes over the grand stair halls.</p><br>
<p>In 1968 the red drapes and leather furnishings were replaced with gold velvet curtains and modern armchairs covered in mustard yellow upholstery. With a space shortage in the Capitol, Governor LeVander decided the room should be converted to office use and closed off to the public. There was strong public objection to this temporary solution. Legislators and civic leaders worked to dissuade LeVander, and kept the Reception Room open to visitors. This controversy helped facilitate the recognition for the historic preservation and restoration of many Capitol spaces in the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, when farmers converged on the Capitol to protest powerline construction on their farms, the message "we want a moratorium on powerlines" was carved into one of the antique tables after several hundred protesters crowded into the Reception Room.</p><br>
<p>One of several signature features of the Capitol is the brass and translucent glass eight-pointed star symbolizing Minnesotas motto, "LÉtoile du Nord" (The Star of the North), which is set in a circle on the floor of the rotunda below the central dome. The star motif is then repeated in the marble floor of the rotunda with the points of the star using red Numidian marble from the Nile River. The star&#39;s glass floor provides natural light to a State Capitol hearing room below. The motto can be seen in other areas of the Capitol stenciled on the walls.</p><br>
<p>Additional state symbols appear as details in unexpected settings. In a homage to Minnesotas nickname, the "Gopher State", life-sized cast iron gophers rear up on balustrades in the rotunda. The Lady Slipper was adopted as the state flower in 1902, during the Capitols construction. Gilbert had many of the Corinthian capitals adjusted to feature larger-than-life renditions of the wild orchid found in Minnesota&#39;s northern forests.</p><br>
<p>The dome electrolier (chandelier) is lit every Statehood Day on May 11, commemorating when Minnesota became the 32nd state in the union on May 11, 1858.</p><br>
<p>Gilbert had originally planned that art decorating the capitol interior would be mainly allegorical in nature. However, the Board of State Capitol Commissioners was approached by American Civil War veterans and Minnesota legislators who felt the artwork in the Capitol should depict real events in the states past rather than allegorical imagery. In particular they wanted recognition of Minnesota&#39;s military units. Additional funds were lacking to build a desired immense obelisk outside the Capitol that was to be the memorial to veterans. These issues convinced Gilbert to amend his vision and include Civil War homages inside the Capitol building.</p><br>
<p>Four of the six paintings originally installed in the Governors Reception Room included Civil war themes, as did the two paintings in the Governors Anteroom. Gilbert originally seemed to want any statues in the second floor rotunda niches to be Minnesota Senators or USA Presidents; however, the statues finally installed between 1909 and 1914 were of Civil War veterans. Years after the construction was done, more plaques and benches memorializing Minnesotans who served in the Civil War were added between the 1920s and 1930s as the result of lobbying done by veterans groups and legislators. While there is no official designation, quality and volume of American Civil War art and historic artifacts in the capitol building gives the semblance the Capitol being a memorial to Civil War veterans.</p><br>
<h2>Capitol Mall</h2><br>
<p>On the Capitol&#39;s south front is the State Capitol Mall, which includes eighteen acres of green space. Over the years, monuments and memorials have been added to the mall. The mall and the Capitol building itself are overseen by the Capitol Area Architectural and Planning Board (CAAPB), a small state agency consisting of twelve members.</p><br>
<p>Cass Gilbert envisioned his State Capitol building in a setting of plazas and axial and radial avenues, but his commission was initially limited to the building only due to lack of funds.</p><br>
<p>As time went on, the aging neighborhood surrounding the Capitol increasingly deteriorated. Work to transform the area and to develop at least partially Gilbert&#39;s vision of landscaped grand boulevards providing key approaches to the capitol began after World War II. The work was largely complete by 1955, leaving the State Capitol Mall with the overall form that still provides the setting for the Minnesota State Capitol.</p><br>
<h2>2013 to 2017 Renovation</h2><br>
<p>The Minnesota State Capitol underwent a comprehensive restoration project from 2013 to 2017, the first major renovation since the building first opened.</p><br>
<p>Work began in 2013, with the project estimated at that time to cost $241 million, funded via a series of appropriations made by the Minnesota legislature. The project repaired and modernized deteriorating building systems, restored the building to Cass Gilbert&#39;s original architectural vision, increased public meeting space (including a new classroom for the Minnesota Historical Society to host school groups and provide information about the building), updated life safety systems, and improved accessibility for people with disabilities.</p><br>
<p>3-D modeling was used to incorporate details about materials and other characteristics of particular parts of the structure. It was used to help with aspects of planning which included the positioning of new HVAC units that required the doubling of ductwork in order to meet modern code requirements but not be noticed or mar the historic character of the building. The laser scanning done to confirm the accuracy of the digital model also showed that Gilbert&#39;s original architectural drawings proved to be very accurate to what was built.</p><br>
<p>The original Georgia marble stone on the exterior had badly deteriorated from weathering, and underwent comprehensive restoration that included 20,000 repairs with 6,000 pieces replaced. The stone was obtained from the same quarry as the original marble. Some historic details removed during previous renovations, were restored or recreated such as the Capitol&#39;s public elevators on the south side of the building which were outfitted with leaded-glass fronts reminiscent of the originals which had been discarded and replaced by stainless steel doors in the late 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The amount of public space in the building was doubled to nearly 40,000 square feet, with a number of new public spaces opened to the public for reservation and use year round. Mechanical systems in the Capitol&#39;s basement were buried under the floor to help create new public spaces including the ’Etoile du Nord Vault event space directly under the rotunda.</p><br>
<p>The renovation forced the House and Senate to hold a special session in the nearby State Office Building in 2015. During the regular 2016 session, the Senate met in the newly completed Senate Office Building, with the capitol open for only limited access to the House chamber during the session.</p><br>
<p>By the time of its completion in 2017, the total cost of the renovation project reached about $310 million. The bulk of construction was completed by the start of the 2017 legislative session in January. The project was officially completed in August 2017, at which point all of the building&#39;s newly renovated spaces opened to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Public access</h2><br>
<p>After its current restoration, the removal of office spaces on the third floor and mechanical and storage spaces in the basement opened up new public gathering spaces, meeting rooms, and exhibit areas, many of which can be reserved for use by members of the public. The Minnesota Historical Society operates the Capitol Information and Tour Center. The building is open to the public most days of the week, and guided tours are available. Tours on special topics surrounding the Capitol occur throughout the year. The Minnesota State Capitol Third Floor Gallery features rotating non-permanent exhibits featuring Minnesota art, culture, and history.</p><br>
<p>Union Square is a historic intersection and surrounding neighborhood in Manhattan, New York City, United States, located where Broadway and the former Bowery Road – now Fourth Avenue – came together in the early 19th century. Its name denotes that "here was the union of the two principal thoroughfares of the island". The current Union Square Park is bounded by 14th Street on the south, 17th Street on the north, and Union Square West and Union Square East to the west and east respectively. 17th Street links together Broadway and Park Avenue South on the north end of the park, while Union Square East connects Park Avenue South to Fourth Avenue and the continuation of Broadway on the park&#39;s south side. The park is maintained by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation.</p><br>
<p>Adjacent neighborhoods are the Flatiron District to the north, Chelsea to the west, Greenwich Village to the southwest, East Village to the southeast, and Gramercy Park to the east. Many buildings of The New School are near the square, as are several dormitories of New York University. The eastern side of the square is dominated by the four Zeckendorf Towers, and the south side by the full-square-block mixed-use One Union Square South, which contains a wall sculpture and digital clock titled Metronome. Union Square Park also contains an assortment of art, including statues of George Washington, Marquis de Lafayette, Abraham Lincoln, and Mahatma Gandhi.</p><br>
<p>Union Square is part of Manhattan Community District 5 and its primary ZIP Code is 10003. It is patrolled by the 13th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. The New York City Subway&#39;s 14th Street–Union Square station, served by the, is located under Union Square.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Prior to the areas settlement, the area around present-day Union Square was farmland. The western part of the site was owned by Elias Brevoort, On the eastern part of the land were farms owned by John Watts and Cornelius Williams. The northwestern corner of the park site contained 1 acre of land owned by the Manhattan Bank, which supposedly was a "refuge" for businesses during New York Citys yellow fever epidemics.</p><br>
<p>When John Randel was surveying the island in preparation for the Commissioners Plan of 1811, the Bloomingdale Road (now Broadway) angled away from the Bowery at an acute angle. Because it would have been difficult to develop buildings upon this angle, the Commissioners decided to form a square at the union. In 1815, by act of the state legislature, this former potters field became a public commons for the city, at first named Union Place.</p><br>
<h3>Mid-to-late 19th century</h3><br>
<h4>Residential neighborhood</h4><br>
<p>In 1831, at a time when the city was quickly expanding and the surrounding area was still sparsely developed, Samuel Ruggles, one of the founders of the Bank of Commerce and the developer of Gramercy Park to the northeast, convinced the city to rename the area "Union Square". In doing so, Ruggles also got the city to enlarge the commons to 17th Street on the north and extend the axis of University Place to form the square&#39;s west side, thus turning the common from a triangular to a rectangular area. By 1832, the area had been renamed Union Square. Ruggles obtained a fifty-year lease on most of the surrounding lots from 15th to 19th Streets, where he built sidewalks and curbs. In 1834, he convinced the Board of Aldermen to enclose and grade the square, then sold most of his leases and in 1839 built a four-story house facing the east side of the Square. The park at Union Square was completed and opened in July 1839.</p><br>
<p>A fountain was built in the center of Union Square to receive water from the Croton Aqueduct, completed in October 1842. In 1845, as the square finally began to fill with affluent houses, $116,000 was spent in paving the surrounding streets and planting the square, in part owing to the continued encouragement of Ruggles. The sole survivors of this early phase, though they have been much adapted and rebuilt, are a series of three- and four-story brick rowhouses, 862–866 Broadway, at the turn where Broadway exits the square at 17th Street. The Everett House on the corner of 17th Street and Fourth Avenue (built 1848, demolished 1908) was for decades one of the citys most fashionable hotels. In the early years of the park, a fence surrounded the squares central oval planted with radiating walks lined with trees. In 1872, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were called in to replant the park, as an open glade with clumps of trees.</p><br>
<p>Initially, the square was largely residential: the Union League Club first occupied a house loaned for the purpose by Henry G. Marquand at the corner of 17th Street and Broadway. After the Civil War the neighborhood became largely commercial, and the square began to lose social cachet at the turn of the twentieth century, with many of the old mansions being demolished. Tiffany & Co., which had moved to the square from Broadway and Broome Street in 1870, left its premises on 15th Street to move uptown to 37th Street in 1905; the silversmiths Gorham Company moved up from 19th Street in 1906. The last of the neighborhoods free-standing private mansions, Peter Goelets at the northeast corner of 19th Street, made way for a commercial building in 1897.</p><br>
<h4>The Rialto</h4><br>
<p>The Rialto, New York Citys first commercial theater district, was located in and around Union Square beginning in the 1870s. It was named after Venices Rialto, a commercial district. The first facility to open within the Union Square Rialto was the Academy of Music, which opened at Irving Place in 1854. The theater district gradually relocated northward, into less expensive and undeveloped uptown neighborhoods, and eventually into the current Theater District.</p><br>
<p>Before the Civil War, theatres in New York City were primarily located along Broadway and the Bowery up to 14th Street, with those on Broadway appealing more to the middle and upper classes and the Bowery theatres attracting immigrant audiences, clerks and the working class. After the war, the development of the Ladies&#39; Mile shopping district along Fifth and Sixth Avenues above 14th Street had the effect of pulling the playhouses uptown, so that a "Rialto" theatrical strip came about on Broadway between 14th and 23rd Streets, between Union Square and Madison Square.</p><br>
<p>At the same time, a transition from stock companies, in which a resident acting company was based around a star or impresario, to a "combination" system, in which productions were put together on a one-time basis to mount a specific play, expanded the amount of outside support needed to service the theatrical industry. Thus, suppliers of props, costumes, wigs, scenery, and other theatrical necessities grew up around the new theatres. The new system also needed an organized way to engage actors for these one-off productions, so talent brokers and theatrical agents sprang up, as did theatrical boardinghouses, stage photographers, publicity agencies, theatrical printers and play publishers. Along with the hotels and restaurants which serviced the theatregoers and shoppers of the area, the Union Square Rialto was, by the end of the century, a thriving theatrical neighborhood, which would soon nonetheless migrate uptown to what became known as "Broadway" as the Rialto became subsumed into the more vice-oriented Tenderloin entertainment district.</p><br>
<h3>Early 20th century</h3><br>
<h4>Office and wholesale district</h4><br>
<p>By the first decade of the 20th century, Union Square had grown into a major transportation hub with several elevated and surface railroad lines running nearby, and the New York City Subway&#39;s 14th Street–Union Square station having opened in 1904.</p><br>
<p>During this era, many of the older homes on Union Square were converted into tenements for immigrants and industrial workers. Numerous artists relocated into the attics of the remaining mansions along 14th Street, where they had their studios. The 1939 WPA Guide to New York City said that by the 1920s, the "south side of Fourteenth Street became virtually an ex-tension of Greenwich Village". Further, real estate values around Union Square had declined by the 1920s, with "burlesque houses, shooting galleries, and shoddy businesses" lining the square. Throughout the decade, most buildings on the eastern part of the square were purchased by department stores S. Klein and Ohrbach&#39;s. Real estate activity resumed in the late 1920s, and according to a 1928 piece in The New York Times, “several smaller operations are planned or are under way in the neighborhood". By then, at least eight banks had opened locations on the western and eastern sides of the park.</p><br>
<h4>1910s and 1920s renovation</h4><br>
<p>City officials announced in 1910 that they would install a firefighters memorial near the northern end of the park. The same year, there was a failed proposal to construct a courthouse within the park. As part of the Dual Contracts, workers began constructing the 14th Street–Union Square station, on the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Companys Broadway Line, under the park in 1913. The station was built using an open cut method, and a 120 ft strip of land, running diagonally through Union Square Park, was closed and excavated. By late 1913, large portions of Union Square Park had been demolished as part of the construction of the Broadway Lines Union Square station. New York Citys parks commissioner promised members of the public that the park would be remodeled after the station was finished.</p><br>
<p>The citys park commissioner Francis D. Gallatin proposed relocating the parks Washington, Lincoln, and Lafayette statues in 1922 to bring the Washington statue closer to the center of the park. A group of sculptors approved his proposal the same month. In 1927, the Municipal Art Society approved plans for a renovation of the park, which was to include a covered parking area at the north end of the park.</p><br>
<p>To make way for a further expansion of the Union Square subway station, the park was raised by about 3 ft as part of a renovation during the late 1920s. The plans, announced in June 1929, also included relocating several statues and building a concert plaza with a bandstand at the parks northern end. Although the city decided to keep the Washington statue in Union Square Park, the statue was relocated to the southeast corner to make way for a flagpole honoring former Tammany Hall leader Charles F. Murphy. Landscaping of the park was delayed by the construction of the subway mezzanine below it. The parks renovation was nearly completed by mid-1931; the last construction contract, for the bandstand, was awarded that August. After building the bandstand, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation could not afford to landscape the park. As a result, civic groups started landscaping the park for free in June 1932.</p><br>
<h3>Late 20th century</h3><br>
<p>Most of the neighborhoods largest retailers, such as Ohrbachs and Hearn&#39;s, had relocated by the 1950s, and the area began to decline. One of the last major retailers on Union Square, S. Klein, closed in 1975. The S. Klein site remained vacant until 1983, when William Zeckendorf leased the site for the Zeckendorf Towers development. The New York Times wrote at the time, "The former S. Klein store, boarded up since 1975, is a melancholy monument to a once-thriving commercial district."</p><br>
<p>In 1982, a $1.5 million refurbishment of Union Square Park was announced. At the time, the park was frequented by drug users because of its tall hedges, and many of the benches, lights, and statues had been vandalized. The first phase of the renovation, which cost $3.6 million, was completed in May 1985. The renovation of Union Square, along with the construction of the Zeckendorf Towers, caused real-estate values in the area to increase. By 1987, there were plans to close off two blocks of the little-used Union Square West to make way for an expansion of the park. This plan was not carried out at the time due to a lack of funds. When the idea of closing Union Square West was again proposed in 1996, local business owners opposed the proposal because the park had become extremely popular, causing vehicular traffic in the neighborhood to increase significantly. Union Square was named a National Historic Landmark in 1997, primarily to honor it as the site of the first Labor Day parade. Mayor Rudy Giuliani announced plans in early 1998 to spend $2.6 million on expanding the park, following advocacy from area residents. The expansion consisted of a pocket park in a traffic island at the southeast corner of Union Square, which was completed in 2000.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, Union Square became a primary public gathering point for mourners. People created spontaneous candle and photograph memorials in the park and vigils were held to honor the victims. At the time, non-emergency vehicles were temporarily banned and pedestrian travel was restricted in Lower Manhattan below 14th Street.</p><br>
<p>In March 2008, an eighteen-month renovation began on the northern end of the park. The renovation was controversial because of disagreements over whether to place a restaurant in the pavilion at the north end of the park. A New York Supreme Court judge approved the renovation of the park&#39;s north end in April 2008 but placed an injunction temporarily banning the city from renovating the pavilion. In early 2009, a judge dismissed the lawsuit against the renovation, allowing a seasonal restaurant in the pavilion. CMS Architecture and Design was hired in 2011 to design the restaurant in the pavilion. The Pavilion restaurant opened in Union Square Park in May 2014, following years of disputes.</p><br>
<p>In 2021, the Union Square Partnership proposed spending $100 million to overhaul Union Square. The plan entailed closing off adjacent streets to increase the park&#39;s size by 33%, as well as adding benches and lighting, improving restrooms, and refurbishing a dog run in the park itself.</p><br>
<h2>Surrounding buildings</h2><br>
<p>There are several notable buildings surrounding Union Square. Clockwise from southwest, they are:</p><br>
<p>Lincoln Building at Union Square West and 14th Street, a city landmark that is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP)</p><br>
<p>Spingler Building (also Springler Building) at 5–9 Union Square West</p><br>
<p>15 Union Square West (former Tiffany & Co. Building)</p><br>
<p>Bank of the Metropolis at 31 Union Square West, a city landmark and a NRHP listing</p><br>
<p>Decker Building at 33 Union Square West, a city landmark and a NRHP listing</p><br>
<p>Century Building (Barnes & Noble) at 33 East 17th Street, on the north side of Union Square, a city landmark and a NRHP listing</p><br>
<p>Everett Building at 45 East 17th Street, on the north side of Union Square, a city landmark</p><br>
<p>W New York Union Square (former Germania Life Insurance Company Building) at 50 Union Square East/105 East 17th Street, a city landmark and a NRHP listing</p><br>
<p>44 Union Square East (former Tammany Hall Building), a city landmark</p><br>
<p>Daryl Roth Theatre (former Union Square Savings Bank) at 20 Union Square East, a city landmark</p><br>
<p>Zeckendorf Towers at 1 Union Square East, a condominium complex on the former site of the bargain-priced department store S. Klein</p><br>
<p>One Union Square South (Davis Brody Bond, 1999), features a kinetic wall sculpture and digital clock expelling bursts of steam, titled Metronome.</p><br>
<p>In addition, the Consolidated Edison Building is located one block east of the Zeckendorf Towers. The Century Association clubhouse is located on 15th Street between Irving Place and Union Square East.</p><br>
<h2>Art and sculpture</h2><br>
<p>Union Square contains a large equestrian statue of USA President George Washington, modeled by Henry Kirke Brown and unveiled in 1856. Located at the south end of the park, it was the first public sculpture erected in New York City since the equestrian statue of George III in 1770, and the first American equestrian sculpture cast in bronze.</p><br>
<p>The Marquis de Lafayette, at Union Square East and 16th Street, was modeled by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and dedicated in 1876, the 100th anniversary of USA independence.</p><br>
<p>The statue of Abraham Lincoln, modeled by Henry Kirke Brown (1870), is located near the north end of the park.</p><br>
<p>A statue of Mahatma Gandhi in the southwest corner of the park was added in 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Union Square Drinking Fountain (1881) near Union Square West, also known as the James Fountain, is a Temperance fountain with the figure of Charity who empties her jug of water, aided by a child. It was donated by Daniel Willis James and sculpted by Adolf Donndorf.</p><br>
<p>The Charles F. Murphy Memorial Flagpole, also known as the Independence Flagstaff, was cast in 1926 and dedicated in 1930 to mark the 150th anniversary of USA independence. It is located in the center of the park.</p><br>
<p>In October 2023, an outdoor version of the sculpture N.Y.C. Legend by the Swedish artist Alexander Klingspor, featuring a New York sewer alligator, was unveiled in the square by Queen Silvia of Sweden.</p><br>
<p>A double line of trees is planted along 17th Street, and a corresponding plaque installed nearby, as a monument to victims of the Armenian genocide.</p><br>
<h2>Greenmarkets and businesses</h2><br>
<h3>Public markets</h3><br>
<p>In 1976, the Council on the Environment of New York City (now GrowNYC) established the Greenmarket program, which provided regional small-family farmers with opportunities to sell their fruits, vegetables and other farm products at open-air markets in the city. There were originally seven farmers at the first Greenmarket, and their selection sold out by noon. That summer, two more markets opened in New York City. Despite some backlash from local merchants and supermarkets who believed the Greenmarket was cutting into their profits, more markets opened in the city.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Union Square Greenmarket, the best known of the markets, is held year-round on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays between 8 am and 6 pm. The market is served by a number of regional farmers, as the average distance between farmers and the market is 90 mi. During peak seasons, the Greenmarket serves more than 250,000 customers per week, who purchase more than one thousand varieties of fruits and vegetables can be found at the Greenmarket; and the variety of produce available is much broader than what is found in a conventional supermarket.</p><br>
<p>Union Square hosts the Union Square Holiday Market every November and December, in which more than 150 vendors sell handcrafts. Around two million people visit the Holiday Market annually. Starting in 2024, UrbanSpace also hosted the Night Market food market in Union Square during the summer.</p><br>
<h3>Businesses</h3><br>
<p>Union Square is a popular meeting place, given its central location in Manhattan and its many nearby subway routes. There are many bars and restaurants on the periphery of the square, and the surrounding streets have some of the citys most renowned (and expensive) restaurants. S. Kleins department store promoted itself in the mid-20th century as an "On the Square" alternative to higher prices uptown, and late in the century several big-box chain stores established a presence, including Barnes & Noble in the Century Building, Babies "R" Us in the former United States Communist Party headquarters, and Staples in the Spingler Building.</p><br>
<p>The W New York Union Square, part of the W Hotels chain, is located at the parks northeast corner, in the former Guardian Life building. Additionally, the Hyatt Union Square New York hotel is located at the parks southeast corner, in a former post office.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural impact</h2><br>
<h3>Social and political activism</h3><br>
<p>The park has historically been the start or the end point for many political demonstrations. Although the park was known for its labor union rallies and for the large 1861 gathering in support of Union troops, it was actually named for its location at the "union" of Bloomingdale Road (now Broadway) and the former Bowery Road decades before these gatherings. On April 20, 1861, soon after the fall of Fort Sumter, Major Robert Anderson, who was the commander of Fort Sumter brought the Fort Sumter Flag that flew at the fort to the park. The flag was flown from the George Washington statue, gathering patriotic rally of perhaps a quarter of a million people that is thought to have been the largest public gathering in North America up to that time. The flag was shortly removed after to be used as a patriotic fundraiser by being auctioned across the country repeatedly. In the summer of 1864 the north side of the square was the site of the Metropolitan Fair.</p><br>
<p>Union Square has been a frequent gathering point for radicals of all stripes to make speeches or demonstrate. In 1865, the recently formed Irish republican Fenian Brotherhood came out publicly and rented Dr. John Moffat&#39;s brownstone rowhouse at 32 East 17th Street, next to the Everett House hotel facing the north side of the square, for the capitol of the government-in-exile they declared. On September 5, 1882, in the first Labor Day celebration, a crowd of at least 10,000 workers paraded up Broadway and filed past the reviewing stand at Union Square. On March 28, 1908, an anarchist set off a bomb in Union Square which only killed himself and another man.</p><br>
<p>In 1893, Emma Goldman took the stage at Union Square to make her "Free Bread" speech to a crowd of overworked garment workers. She also addressed a crowd in 1916 on the need for free access to birth control, which was banned by the Comstock laws. Her visits to Union Square pulled hundreds of followers; some of these rallies resulted in her arrest.</p><br>
<p>Union Square has been used as a platform to raise awareness about the Black Lives Matter movement, such as during the George Floyd protests in New York City in 2020.</p><br>
<p>The Squares shopping district saw strikes in the S. Klein and Ohrbach department stores in 1934. White collar workers were among the worst paid in Great Depression-era New York City, with union memberships being highly discouraged by store managers and often seen as fireable offenses. These strikes often involved acts of disobedience by the workers as many of them did not want to lose their jobs. This period saw Union Square as a gathering point for many of the citys socialist and communist groups. The centennial of Union Square was seen as a thinly veiled effort to displace those elements with its draping of the square with flags and police demonstrations of anti protester drills.</p><br>
<h3>Street chess</h3><br>
<p>The Villager, a local newspaper, reported in 2013 that most of the street chess players at Washington Square Park—where Bobby Fischer had played—had moved their games to Union Square because the latter had more foot traffic. Street chess players play fast chess with passers-by for three to five dollars a game, with time controls of five minutes on each side being the most common. Writer Lauren Snetiker at the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation also documents this migration of the historical Washington Square Park chess scene to Union Square, noting the "dozens of chess players sit on crates and bring their own boards... as there are no permanent ones like there are in Washington Square Park".</p><br>
<h3>Freestyle Hip-Hop</h3><br>
<p>Union Square is the site of a regular hip-hop freestyle rap cypher called Legendary Cyphers since 2012. The events draw residents from across the city and tourists and encourage participation in freestyle hip-hop. Notable local hip-hop artists such as Joey Bada$$ have attended in the past.</p><br>
<h2>Union Square Partnership</h2><br>
<p>The Union Square Partnership (USP), a business improvement district (BID) and a local development corporation (LDC), was formed in 1984 and became a model for other BIDs in New York City. Jennifer E. Falk became its executive director in January 2007.</p><br>
<p>The Union Square Partnership provides a free public Wi-Fi network in Union Square.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The Washington Irving Campus at 40 Irving Place between East 16th and 17th Streets, a block east of Union Square Park, was formerly the location of a comprehensive high school, but now houses Gramercy Arts High School, the High School for Language and Diplomacy, the International High School at Union Square, the Union Square Academy for Health Sciences and the Academy for Software Engineering. In 2012, Success Academy Charter Schools announced its plan to open an elementary school in the building, and an elementary school opened there the next year.</p><br>
<p>The Winslow House is a Frank Lloyd Wright-designed house located at 515 Auvergne Place in River Forest, Illinois. A landmark building in Wrights career, the Winslow House, built in 1894–95, was his first major commission as an independent architect. While the design owes a debt to the earlier James Charnley House, Wright always considered the Winslow House extremely important to his career. Looking back on it in 1936, he described it as "the first prairie house&#39;."</p><br>
<p>The original owner, William Winslow, was exemplary of Wrights Chicago clients, which the architect described as, "American men of business with unspoiled instincts and ideals." A manufacturer of decorative ironwork, Winslow later worked with Wright on a number of publishing projects, specifically for Keatss The Eve of St. Agnes (1896), and William C. Gannetts The House Beautiful (1896–97). The men were first introduced through Winslows dealings with Adler and Sullivan, Wrights former employers. He was in the ornamental iron business and his firm had done the facade on the Carson Pirie Scott building for Wrights previous employer. Adler and Sullivan were not interested in performing residential architectural assignments so Winslow turned to Wright. The houses design is inspired by the works of Wrights mentor Louis Sullivan and anticipates Wrights mature Prairie School buildings of the next decade. Sheltered beneath a low-pitched roof with wide eaves, the home is symmetrical and horizontally divided into a stone section, a golden Roman brick section, and a terra cotta frieze of Sullivanesque ornament. In contrast to the calm and balanced front facade, the rear is a mass of irregular geometric forms. The interior echoes both Wrights own home and the Charnley House, with the fireplace at the center facing the entry with rooms on either side and a hidden main staircase.</p><br>
<p>The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 17, 1970.</p><br>
<p>In 2016 the house was sold for $1.375 million. It had been owned by the general manager of a local television station. His family had owned the house for 57 years.</p><br>
<p>Winslow House in River Forest, Illinois.jpg</p><br>
<p>Saint Marys College, also known as St. Marys College of Madonna University, is a private college located in Orchard Lake Village, Michigan. St. Marys College shares its campus with St. Marys Preparatory and SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary. It is located on the former site of the Michigan Military Academy. It was founded in 1885 by Fr. Joseph Dabrowski and transferred in 2003 to become St. Mary&#39;s College of and the Orchard Lake Campus of Madonna University. Enrollment before the transfer was about 130 and specialized in Polish and Polish-American studies.</p><br>
<h2>St. Mary&#39;s College of Madonna University</h2><br>
<p>St. Marys College is now a college of Madonna University, much in the way the College of Humanities or the College of Sciences is of any university. Baccalaureate degrees are offered in Sacred Theology, Philosophy, and Polish Studies. St. Marys College is host to the Catholic Integrated Core Curriculum, a set of courses taken in lieu of general education courses that seeks to integrate Faith and Reason as outlined in Pope John Paul II&#39;s encyclical Fides et Ratio, specifically through the study of philosophy, theology, and the great works of Western Civilization (literature, sculpture, etc.).</p><br>
<h2>Orchard Lake Campus of Madonna University</h2><br>
<p>More widely, the campus is referred to as the Orchard Lake Campus of Madonna University. Courses taught cover a wide array of subjects including psychology, biology, business, and computer science.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>Dale Joseph Melczek, Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Gary, Indiana.</p><br>
<p>Kerry Bentivolio, former Member of the USA House of Representatives from Michigan&#39;s 11th congressional district.</p><br>
<p>Powelton Village is a neighborhood of mostly Victorian, mostly twin homes in the West Philadelphia section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is a national historic district that is part of University City. Powelton Village extends north from Market Street to Spring Garden Street, east to 32nd Street, west to 40th and Spring Garden Streets, and to 44th and Market Streets.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Powelton Village takes its name from the Powel Family, 17th and 18th century Welsh colonialists who held extensive estates in the area. Samuel Powel served as mayor of Philadelphia from 1775 to 1776 and again from 1789 to 1790. As in other parts of West Philadelphia, in the late 1800s trolley lines opened the area up to urbanization. Powelton soon became a choice residential spot for Philadelphia industrial tycoons.</p><br>
<p>Powelton&#39;s luster began to wane by the 1920s, and by the 1940s the neighborhood was populated by low-income families. In the 1960s the Village was home to many members of the counterculture movement, and Powelton today enjoys a strong political activism and anarchist tradition, as well as a healthy multiethnic pluralism.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the Powelton Historic District, the Bell Telephone Exchange Building, The Powelton, Frederick A. Poth Houses, and John Shedwick Development Houses are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Neighborhood</h2><br>
<p>Commercial activity in Powelton Village is concentrated on Lancaster Avenue between 35th and 39th St. Years ago, a developer called this portion of Lancaster Avenue “The Rodeo Drive of West Philly” and this is slowly becoming a reality. Many local businesses benefit from both Powelton residents and college students.The Avenue is lined with shops, restaurants and other retail establishments including a bank, locksmith, dance studio, juice bar, gym, vintage clothing stores, barber shop, Philly&#39;s largest gaming shop, jewelry and textile stores, two coffee shops, and Asian, Indian, and Philly fare restaurants.</p><br>
<p>Residential streets are mostly lined with Victorian twin houses, some of which are traditional family homes, while others have been subdivided into apartments. Detached houses, row houses, and apartment buildings also dot the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The southern end of Powelton Village includes property owned by Drexel University. Many students from Drexel live off-campus in Powelton&#39;s urban-structured row-house apartments because of the short walk to campus.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Powelton is easily accessed by automobile and public transportation. The neighborhood is close to Interstate 76, and several major streets, including Market, Spring Garden, and 34th, cross the neighborhood. Bike lanes run along Haverford Avenue, Spring Garden Street and its bridge, Lancaster Avenue, and on 38th and 34th Streets south of Lancaster Avenue.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood is close to two subway stops on the Market–Frankford Line, located at 34th and Market and 40th and Market. Powelton is also easily accessed by trolley: the route 10 trolley runs on 36th Street between the Ludlow Street portal and Lancaster Avenue, continuing west on Lancaster Avenue. Additionally, there are two underground trolley stops close to Powelton: 33rd and Market, serving all trolley lines, and 36th and Sansom, serving all lines except route 10. Bus route 31 runs through the neighborhood, traveling north on 33rd, Baring, and 35th, and south on 37th, Baring, and 34th. Route 43 runs east on Spring Garden Street and west on Haverford Avenue. The neighborhood is adjacent to 30th Street Station, which serves all Northeast Corridor trains, the New Jersey Transit Atlantic City Line, and all Regional Rail lines, as well as the Market-Frankford Line and the subway-surface trolley lines.</p><br>
<h2>Arts and culture</h2><br>
<p>Several art and photo galleries have opened along Lancaster Avenue from 36th to 40th. The Community Education Center, at 35th and Lancaster, holds various community events and gatherings. Spiral Q Puppet Theater is located on Spring Garden Street between 31st and 32nd Streets. Nearby destinations include The Bridge, a movie theater at 40th and Walnut; and the Philadelphia Zoo at 34th and Girard.</p><br>
<p>During Lancaster Avenue&#39;s "Second Fridays," shops and galleries are open later and often have various specials, and the event often features live music.</p><br>
<h2>Education and Hospitality</h2><br>
<p>Public education choices include the Samuel Powel Elementary School at 36th and Powelton, the Drew School at 37th and Lancaster, and University City High School at 36th and Filbert. The University of Pennsylvania and Drexel University have significant presences in the neighborhood, as well as in adjacent areas to the south.</p><br>
<p>To serve these two universities, several hotels are located nearby, including the Sheraton at 36th and Chestnut, and The Inn at Penn, located between 36th & 37th Sts. on Sansom St. In Powelton proper, there are several bed-and-breakfasts, including the Cornerstone at 33rd and Baring Sts.</p><br>
<p>The King David Kalakaua Building in Honolulu, Hawaii is a government building formerly known as the USA Post Office, Customhouse, and Courthouse. It was the official seat of administration in the Territory of Hawaii and state of Hawaii for the United States federal government.</p><br>
<h2>Federal building</h2><br>
<p>The building was designed in 1918 and built from 1921 to 1922 in Mission/Spanish Revival architecture. An addition to the building was started in 1929, and opened in 1931.</p><br>
<p>Among other functions, the building held courtrooms and offices for the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on January 27, 1975, under the former name as site 75000620. In 1978 it was also included as a contributing property in the NRHP listing of the Hawaii Capital Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>State building</h2><br>
<p>In December 2003, the federal government sold most of the building to the state of Hawaii for US$32.5 million, upon which the building was renamed in honor of King David Kalākaua &mdash; last king of the Hawaiian monarchy. By that point in time, all federal agencies and departments had already moved their Hawaii-based offices years earlier to the Prince Kuhio Federal Building near Honolulu Harbor, except for a small section of the building that is still used as a post office.</p><br>
<p>Today, the building is home to the offices of the Hawaii Department of Commerce and Consumer Affairs.</p><br>
<p>Kykuit, known also as the John D. Rockefeller Estate, is a 40-room historic house museum in Pocantico Hills, a hamlet in the town of Mount Pleasant, New York 25 mi north of New York City. The house was built for oil tycoon and Rockefeller family patriarch John D. Rockefeller. Conceived largely by his son, John D. Rockefeller Jr., and enriched by the art collection of the third-generation scion, Governor of New York, and Vice President of the United States, Nelson Rockefeller, it was home to four generations of the family. The house is a National Historic Landmark owned by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and tours are given by Historic Hudson Valley.</p><br>
<p>Kykuit (in modern Dutch spelling Kijkuit, also uitkijk, is a compound noun meaning "lookout, look-out") is situated on the highest point in Pocantico Hills, overlooking the Hudson River at Tappan Zee. Located near Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow, it has a view of the New York City skyline 25 mi to the south.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>John D. Rockefeller purchased land in the area as early as 1893, after his brother William had moved into a 204-room mansion, Rockwood Hall, nearby. When Rockefeller and his son chose Pocantico Hills as their residence, he quietly purchased multiple homes and properties in the area, and used the houses for himself and his family and staff, or to rent out. Rockefeller and his wife Laura Spelman Rockefeller moved into one of these, the Parsons-Wentworth House, in 1893. The couple would spend winter weekends and parts of each summer and fall there, sharing the upstairs rooms with their adult children and in-laws, pending construction of the manor house.</p><br>
<p>The Parsons-Wentworth House burned down on September 17, 1902, and the Kent House became their temporary residence until rebuilding could occur. The New York Times mentioned that Rockefeller had never been satisfied with the destroyed house&#39;s electric wiring, which had been installed before certain safety measures were developed. He had ordered workers to reroute the wires into conduits, work which had been planned to commence the day after it was pre-empted by the fire. The loss was estimated at $40,000.</p><br>
<p>Kykuit was designed originally as a steep-roofed three-story stone mansion by the architects Chester Holmes Aldrich and William Adams Delano. Aldrich was a distant relative of the younger Rockefeller&#39;s wife, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, who was involved as artistic consultant and in the interior design of the mansion.</p><br>
<p>The initial eclectic structure took six years to complete. Before being occupied, it was substantially rebuilt into its present four-story Classical Revival Georgian form. Completed in 1913, it has two basement levels filled with interconnecting passageways and service tunnels. The home&#39;s interiors were designed by Ogden Codman Jr., and feature collections of Chinese and European ceramics, fine furnishings, and 20th-century art.</p><br>
<p>The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976. In 1979, its occupant, Nelson Rockefeller, bequeathed upon his death his one-third interest in the estate to the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Today, Kykuit is open to the public for tours conducted by Historic Hudson Valley.</p><br>
<p>Kykuit was renovated and modernized in 1995 by New Haven architect Herbert S. Newman and Partners. Included were major infrastructure changes enabling the estate to accommodate group tours of the first floor and art gallery, as well as a reconfiguration of third and fourth floor staff quarters into guest suites.</p><br>
<h2>Gardens</h2><br>
<p>Initially, the task of landscaping of the grounds was assigned to the Olmsted Brothers firm. Rockefeller Senior was unhappy with their work, however, and assumed control of the design himself, transplanting whole mature trees, designing lookouts and the several scenic winding roads. In 1906, the further design of Kykuits grounds was undertaken by architect William Welles Bosworth, who designed the surrounding terraces and gardens with fountains, pavilions and classical sculpture. These gardens in the Beaux-Arts style are considered some of Bosworths best work in the United States, looking out over very fine views of the Hudson River. A few years later, Bosworth would design the Neo-Classical main building complex and landscaping for the new campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>Bosworth&#39;s original gardens still exist, with plantings carefully replaced over time, although his entrance forecourt was extended in 1913. The terraced gardens include a Morning Garden, Grand Staircase, Japanese Garden, Italian Garden, Japanese-style brook, Japanese Tea-house, large Oceanus fountain, Temple of Aphrodite, loggia, and semicircular rose garden.</p><br>
<h2>Art collection</h2><br>
<p>Distributed through the estate are numerous artworks reflecting the tastes of the past occupants. Governor Nelson Rockefeller collected and displayed many 20th century artworks, with a focus on abstract works from the 1950s through the 1970s. He was also very influential in the selection of artworks for the Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection, located next to the New York State Capitol in Albany, New York.</p><br>
<p>Nelson Rockefeller transformed previously empty basement passages beneath the mansion that had led to a grotto into a major private art gallery containing paintings by Picasso, Chagall, and Warhol, the latter two having visited the estate. Between 1935 and the late 1970s more than 120 works of abstract, avant-garde, and modern sculpture from Nelson&#39;s collection were added to the gardens and grounds, including works by Pablo Picasso (Bathers), Constantin Brâncuși, Karel Appel (Mouse on Table), Jean Arp, Alexander Calder, Alberto Giacometti, Georg Kolbe (Ruf der Erde), Gaston Lachaise, Aristide Maillol, Henry Moore, Louise Nevelson, Isamu Noguchi (Black Sun), and David Smith.</p><br>
<h2>Public tours</h2><br>
<p>The inner park area was opened to restricted conducted tours of the mansion and immediate surrounds in 1994, but remains occupied and controlled by the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, which leased the area from the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 1991 and serves as steward of what is referred to as "the historic area".</p><br>
<p>Public tours are conducted by Historic Hudson Valley, an organization established in 1951 by John D. Rockefeller Jr. "to celebrate the region&#39;s history, architecture, landscape, and material culture, advancing its importance and thereby assuring its preservation." Shuttle vans run from a visitor center located at the Philipsburg Manor House on Route 9 in Sleepy Hollow, New York.</p><br>
<h2>Pocantico, the family estate</h2><br>
<p>The estate, known as Pocantico or Pocantico Hills, occupies an area of 1,380 hectare. During much of the 20th century, the 1,420 hectare estate featured a resident workforce of security guards, gardeners, and laborers, and had its own farming, cattle, and food supplies. It has a nine-hole, reversible golf course, and at one time had 75 houses and 70 private roads, most designed by John D. Rockefeller Sr. and his son. A longstanding witticism about the estate quips: "It&#39;s what God would have built, if only He had the money".</p><br>
<p>In 1901, John D. Rockefeller Sr. hired golf course architect Willie Dunn, the designer of Shinnecock Hills Golf Club, to build a golf course on the grounds.</p><br>
<p>In late 1946, two of Junior&#39;s sons, John D. Rockefeller III and Laurance Rockefeller, each offered their respective residences, Fieldwood Farm and Rockwood Hall, as headquarters for the then newly formed United Nations. Family patriarch Rockefeller Junior vetoed the proposals, as the sites were too isolated from Manhattan. He instead tasked his second son, Nelson, to buy a 6.9 hectare site along the East River in New York City, which was subsequently donated for the construction of the UN Headquarters.</p><br>
<p>Among guests hosted by Nelson and his brother David have been American Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Ronald Reagan, and their wives. Other notable visitors have included United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan, President of the Republic of South Africa Nelson Mandela, Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, King Hussein of Jordan, President Anwar Sadat of Egypt, and Lord Mountbatten of Burma of the United Kingdom.</p><br>
<h3>Residences</h3><br>
<p>Within the park:</p><br>
<p>"Hawes House", home of Nelson Rockefeller</p><br>
<p>"Kent House", home of Laurance Rockefeller</p><br>
<p>Outside the park:</p><br>
<p>"Abeyton Lodge", home of John D. Rockefeller Jr., demolished when he occupied Kykuit after his father&#39;s death</p><br>
<p>"Fieldwood Farm", home of John D. Rockefeller III</p><br>
<p>"Hillcrest", a Rockefeller University property, formerly the mansion built for Martha Baird Rockefeller, second wife of John D. Rockefeller Jr., and current location of the 3-story underground bunker housing the Rockefeller Archive Center</p><br>
<p>"Hudson Pines", home of David Rockefeller, just north of the Park (177 acre), originally built for and occupied by his only sister, Abby</p><br>
<p>"Hunting Lodge", second home of Nelson Rockefeller</p><br>
<p>"Rockwood Hall", originally the 1,000 acre property of John D. Rockefeller Sr.&#39;s brother, William Rockefeller, and currently part of the Rockefeller State Park Preserve</p><br>
<h3>Notable outbuildings</h3><br>
<p>The Pocantico Conference Center of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund (RBF), in the Park, where there are regular conferences.</p><br>
<p>The "Playhouse", the family seat. In the park, this is the location, since 1994, of the regular semi-annual family meetings, in June and December.</p><br>
<p>The Orangerie, housing citrus plants, this is modeled after the original at the Palace of Versailles</p><br>
<p>Breuer Guest House, a modern house that was exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art, then disassembled, shipped to, and reassembled at the estate.</p><br>
<p>Underground Bomb Shelter, the location of cabinet papers and private telephone transcripts delivered to the estate during 1973 - and kept there for an unknown period of time - by the then Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger.</p><br>
<p>The Stone Barns Center for Food & Agriculture, outside the park, this was opened by David Rockefeller and Peggy Dulany during 2004 and was established in memory of Rockefeller&#39;s wife, Peggy. It is a not-for-profit agricultural and educational facility on 32 hectare of farmland, in the middle of the 445 hectare family-donated Rockefeller State Park Preserve, allied to the family-funded Pocantico Central School. It sells organic local produce, meat, and eggs to the nearby public for-profit restaurant, Blue Hill, as well as to local businesses in the Pocantico Hills area.</p><br>
<p>The Rockefeller Archive Center, a voluminous three-story underground bunker built below the foundations of the Hillcrest mansion of Martha Baird Rockefeller, situated just outside the Park area. This is an impressively equipped repository of 150-plus years of Rockefeller papers, memorabilia, and other outside organizations&#39; collections. It is staffed by ten full-time archivists who patrol 40 ft -long shelves on rails, and it contains, for researchers, the publicly restricted and expurgated family history.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, family members have had a profound effect on the hamlet of Pocantico Hills, which is situated in the open space of the estate completely surrounded by family-owned land. The Union Church of Pocantico Hills, now owned by Historic Hudson Valley, was built by the Rockefeller family, which commissioned stained-glass windows by Matisse (an abstract rose window, memorializing Abby Aldrich) and by Chagall (the remainder of the windows, emphasizing Biblical prophets and some New Testament themes, and memorializing various members of the family and others). They also helped finance the construction of the local Pocantico Hills School.</p><br>
<p>Fort Concho is a former United States Army installation and National Historic Landmark District located in San Angelo, Texas. It was established in November 1867 at the confluence of the North and South Concho Rivers, on the routes of the Butterfield Overland Mail Route and Goodnight–Loving Trail, and was an active military base for the next 22 years. Fort Concho was the principal base of the 4th Cavalry from 1867 to 1875 and then the "Buffalo Soldiers" of the 10th Cavalry from 1875 to 1882. The troops stationed at Fort Concho participated in Ranald S. Mackenzie&#39;s 1872 campaign, the Red River War in 1874, and the Victorio Campaign of 1879–1880.</p><br>
<p>The fort was abandoned in June 1889, and over the next 20 years was divided into residences and businesses, with the buildings repurposed or recycled for their materials. Efforts to preserve and restore Fort Concho began in the 1900s and resulted in the foundation of the Fort Concho Museum in 1929. The property has been owned and operated by the city of San Angelo since 1935. Fort Concho was named a National Historic Landmark on July 4, 1961, and is one of the best-preserved examples of the military installations built by the US Army in Texas.</p><br>
<p>The Fort Concho Historic District covers the fort&#39;s original 40 acre grounds and 23 buildings, some of which are the oldest in San Angelo., about 55,000 people visit the fort annually.</p><br>
<h2>Operation by the US military</h2><br>
<p>Fort Concho was established during the American colonization of Texas in the 19th century, a process that began in the 1820s with the immigration of Anglo-Americans into Spanish, later Mexican, Texas. Europeans first reached the Concho River valley in the 16th century. The Spanish established contact and then trade with the Jumano people, who inhabited the valley until they were driven out of it by the Apache peoples in the 1690s. The Apache were themselves expelled by the mid-18th century by the Comanche. However, in 1849, American colonists began crossing West Texas in large numbers to reach California, where gold had been discovered. To protect its citizens, the United States Army ordered the construction of a string of forts along the frontier&#39;s routes of travel from 1850 to 1852. Among those forts was Fort Chadbourne, established on October 28, 1852, and among those avenues was the Butterfield Overland Mail route, established in 1858 with Fort Chadbourne as one of its stations.</p><br>
<p>The beginning of the American Civil War in 1861 ended both enterprises. The Butterfield route moved out of Texas, and the federal government ceded its Texas forts to the Confederate States of America. Confederate Texas was unable to secure its territories, so as a consequence, white settlers retreated eastward throughout the war. After the end of the war in 1865, though, immigrants from the war-torn Southern States decamped for Texas. Many of these immigrants became cattle herders and followed routes such as the Goodnight–Loving Trail, established in 1866 on the Butterfield route – which brought large volumes of cattle through the Concho Valley.</p><br>
<p>Major General Philip Sheridan, appointed to command the postwar military district covering Texas and Louisiana on March 19, 1867, at first ignored reports of raiding by indigenous peoples, but later that year, the US Army was ordered to reoccupy its pre-war billets in Texas, and that May, Fort Chadbourne was reoccupied by the 4th Cavalry. Fort Chadbourne was, however, poorly supplied with water. The US Army decided to replace Fort Chadbourne with a new installation. They identified the junction of the Concho Rivers as an ideal site because of its proximity to the routes it was to guard and nearby grazing land, and the abundance of water.</p><br>
<p>In mid-1867, Major John Porter Hatch, commanding the 4th Cavalry, dispatched Lieutenant Peter M. Boehm to establish a camp on the Middle Concho, 50 mi to the south of Fort Chadbourne. Captain Michael J. Kelly and 50 troopers established this camp, albeit on the North Concho, and remained there over the summer of 1867. On November 28, 1867, the 4th Cavalrys H Company departed from Fort Chadbourne for the Conchos. H Companys commander, Captain George G. Huntt, named the site of the new fort "Camp Hatch", but changed it at Hatch&#39;s request to "Camp Kelly" in January 1868 to honor Kelly, who had died on August 13, 1867, of typhoid fever. Construction of a permanent outpost began on a site north of the camp, which was named Fort Concho in March 1868 by Edward M. Stanton, United States Secretary of War.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Captain David W. Porter, assistant quartermaster of the Department of Texas, was tasked with constructing Fort Concho on December 10, 1867. Progress was slow, as all building materials had to be shipped in and there was frequent bickering among the forts officers, Huntt and Porter included. Porter employed civilian masons and carpenters, but also oversaw the construction of Forts Griffin and Richardson. As such, he was often not present at the fort to direct building work. In March 1868, Porter was replaced at Fort Concho by Major George C. Cram, who built a temporary guardhouse. Cram was also frequently absent from the fort, and in the year of his arrival had the regional mail line superintendent, Major Ben Ficklin, arrested. The United States Postmaster General intervened and by August, Cram was reassigned and construction was handed to Captain Joseph Rendlebrock, the 4th Cavalrys quartermaster. By the end of the year, Rendlebrock had completed the commissary, quartermaster&#39;s storehouse, and a wing of the hospital.</p><br>
<p>The first permanent military structures on the fort grounds, five of the officers residences and the first regimental barracks, were completed by August 1869. They were followed over the next year by two more officers residences, another barracks, and a permanent guardhouse and stables. Hatch pushed for the completion of the fort through 1870–71, directing the building of a quartermasters corral and a wagon shed. In February 1872, however, budget cuts by the US War Department resulted in the dismissal of the civilian workers and another lull in construction. By the end of the year, Fort Concho consisted of four barracks, eight officers residences, the hospital, a magazine, bakery, several storehouses, workshops, and stables.</p><br>
<p>In 1875, the parade ground was cleared and a flagstaff placed in its center. In the process, the adjutants office was moved to the headquarters building. It was replaced in short order with a stone command structure, the headquarters building, built in 1876. Another officers residence was built in 1877, as were the foundations for another that went unfinished for lack of funding. This building was completed in February 1879 as the schoolhouse and chapel. It was the final permanent structure completed at Fort Concho. By 1879, the fort was an eight-company installation. Construction had, by 1877, cost the US Army $1 million ($, adjusted for inflation) on land it had leased. Thirty-nine permanent buildings were on the fort grounds by April 1889.</p><br>
<h3>Base of the 4th Cavalry</h3><br>
<p>In the first seven months of Fort Conchos existence, its garrison – numbering 129, out of a force of 3,672 in Texas, according to the 1869 reports of the War Department – were occupied by its plodding construction. This was the cause of much criticism by local Texas newspapers; the frontier continued to retreat in the remaining years of the 1860s. Meanwhile, outside of building work, the garrison patrolled, scouted, and escorted cattle herds and wagon trains on the San Antonio–El Paso Road. There was thus little combat in Texas, according to the US Army records. Inaction by the army, whose garrisons were poorly and irregularly supplied, and criticism of that inaction, continued into 1871. Beginning with the creation of the Department of Texas that March, however, US Army activity in Texas changed. Sheridan adopted a strategy of feinting and constant movement early in the year, and then punitive expeditions in the winter, when the tribes ponies would be weakest. As part of Sheridan&#39;s plan, the garrisons of the Texas forts established subposts. Among these were Fort Chadbourne, which was reoccupied, and Camp Charlotte, on the Middle Concho.</p><br>
<p>On February 25, 1871, Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie took command of the 4th Cavalry. He moved the regimental headquarters to Fort Richardson a month later, but kept a few companies at Fort Concho. These companies participated in an inconclusive campaign against the Kiowa from May to September 1871, returning to Fort Concho in November. Comanche and Kiowa raids became more frequent over the rest of 1871, prompting a number of expeditions that rarely saw Native Americans. A notable exception was a patrol carried out by Sergeant William Wilson from March 26 to 29, 1872, that led to the US Armys discovery of water in the Staked Plains and a large Comanche settlement at Mushaway Peak. Hatch, in charge of Fort Concho for Mackenzie, reported Wilsons findings, which were confirmed by another patrol by Captain Napoleon B. McLaughlen.</p><br>
<p>After Mackenzie and Hatch met with Brigadier General Christopher C. Augur, in command of the Department of Texas, Mackenzie and McLaughlen, commanding Companies D and I, departed from their respective installations on June 17. Over the following months, the 4th Cavalry explored the South Plains and fought the Comanche at the Battle of the North Fork on September 29. As a result of that battle, the 4th Cavalry captured 124 women and children, 116 of whom were taken back to Fort Concho on October 21. The captives were interned in the quartermaster&#39;s corral and remained there until the Department of Texas ordered their release on April 14, 1873. They departed Fort Concho on May 24 under escort from the 11th Infantry and arrived at Fort Sill on June 10.</p><br>
<p>On June 27, 1874, more than 200 indigenous warriors attacked a group of buffalo hunters camped at Adobe Walls, beginning the Red River War. In response, Augur ordered Mackenzie and the 4th Cavalry back to Fort Concho in July. By August, Sheridan, now commanding the Military Division of the Missouri, ordered five expeditionary forces of more than 3,000 soldiers each into the South Plains. The southern force, under Mackenzie, left Fort Concho on August 23, 1874, with eight companies of the 4th Cavalry, four of the 10th Infantry, and one from the 11th Infantry. Over the following year, Mackenzie chased the Comanche to their base of operations in the Palo Duro Canyon and destroyed it on September 28. His force continued to patrol the area over the winter, preventing the Comanche from rebuilding their supplies and forcing their return to their reservation.</p><br>
<h3>Base of the 10th Cavalry</h3><br>
<p>By 1875, Fort Concho had become one of the main US Army bases in Texas, but early in the year, the 4th Cavalry was transferred to Fort Sill to keep the South Plains nations on their reservation. They were replaced at Fort Concho by the 10th Cavalry, an all-black regiment commanded by Colonel Benjamin Grierson. He arrived at Fort Concho on April 17, 1875, and established the regimental headquarters there. Stationed at Forts Concho, Stockton, Davis, Quitman, and Clark, and their subposts, the 10th Cavalry was tasked with patrolling the frontier, escorting wagons and settlers, and mounting expeditions. Beginning in 1877, starving Plains tribes began killing buffalo hunters and raiding white settlements. In response, Grierson sent Captain Nicholas M. Nolan and a company of the 10th to subdue the raiders. Nolan set out in July, and achieved nothing but the death of four soldiers from the 10th Cavalry&#39;s Company A.</p><br>
<p>In late 1879, Grierson received word that a war party of Ojo Caliente and Mescalero Apache under Chief Victorio entered the Trans-Pecos. He left Fort Concho on March 23, 1880, at the head of five companies of the 10th Cavalry and some of the 25th Infantry to disarm the Mescaleros of the Fort Stanton reservation. Griersons soldiers fought with Apache raiders over early April, then reached Fort Stanton on April 12. The disarmament was delayed until April 16 because of rains and resulted in failure when the Mescalero Apache escaped with most of their arms. Grierson returned to Fort Concho on May 16, but left the 10th Cavalrys M Company at the head of the North Concho in case the Apache appeared in the area.</p><br>
<p>On June 17, 1880, Nolan and a battalion of the 10th Cavalry at Fort Sill returned to Fort Concho by Griersons order. Ten days later, Grierson sent Nolan to patrol the Guadalupe Mountains and himself set out from Fort Concho on July 10. Grierson harried Victorio over the summer until he was defeated at Rattlesnake Springs and driven into Mexico, where Victorios band was destroyed on October 15, 1880, by the Mexican Army. The 10th Cavalry transferred permanently to Fort Davis, farther to the west, in July 1882.</p><br>
<h3>Post-Texas Indian Wars and deactivation</h3><br>
<p>On January 27, 1881, the Texas Rangers fought and defeated what was left of Victorios band in the final battle of the American Indian Wars fought in Texas. The 10th Cavalry was replaced at Fort Concho in 1882 by the 16th Infantry, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Alfred L. Hough. Ten days before Hough and the regimental headquarters arrived at the fort that August, the Concho River flooded, destroying the town of Ben Ficklin and badly damaging San Angelo. As a result, the 16th Infantry spent its first week on-site rendering humanitarian aid. After recovering, San Angelo began to prosper, while Fort Concho declined from poor maintenance. From 1882 until the forts final closure, it served primarily as a base for troops awaiting transfer elsewhere in Texas. When Fort McKavett was abandoned by the US Army in June 1883, its garrison moved to Fort Concho.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-1880s, ranches enclosed the surrounding plains with barbed-wire fencing; the soldiers, barred by law from cutting the wire, were reduced to patrolling roads. Many of the frontier forts, such as Forts Davis and Griffin, had either been abandoned or were awaiting deactivation. After the 16th Infantry left Fort Concho for Fort Bliss in February 1887, locals believed Fort Concho would also be abandoned. In early 1888, the 8th Cavalry gathered at Fort Concho from around Texas and then left in June for Fort Meade, South Dakota. With their departure, only the 19th Infantry&#39;s K Company was garrisoned at Fort Concho. On June 20, 1889, the men of K Company lowered the flag over the fort for the final time and left the next morning.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship with San Angelo, Texas</h2><br>
<p>In 1870, entrepreneur Bartholomew J. DeWitt purchased a half-section of land (0.5 square miles) across the Concho from Fort Concho. He divided the area into plots to build a town, later to be known as San Angelo. The township was not a profitable venture and its lots were sold at low prices. By 1875, San Angelo was a collection of saloons and brothels. Relations between the town and Fort Conchos garrison were strained and often outright hostile. Violence between Fort Conchos black servicemen and townspeople was common, and continued until the 10th Cavalry was replaced by the 16th Infantry in 1882. Humanitarian aid rendered to locals by the garrison, especially following the flood of 1882, eventually evaporated the lingering animosity.</p><br>
<p>Fort Concho was crucial to San Angelos early growth. The presence of its garrison attracted traders and settlers and allowed diversification in the towns economy. The forts chaplains were some of the first preachers and educators in the town and its medical staff, chiefly surgeon William Notson, also treated civilians. One of Notsons civilian assistants, Samuel L. S. Smith, became San Angelo&#39;s first physician, and in 1910 helped establish its first civilian hospital. The government-contracted merchants who serviced the fort would all settle in San Angelo and be counted among its architects.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>Following the closure of the fort in 1889, it was divided into commercial and residential lots and its buildings were accordingly renovated or demolished. Enlisted Barracks 3 and 4 were replaced with a series of residences, while the officers residences were preserved as private homes. Additional buildings were built in and around the fort, including a school constructed on the parade ground in 1907. As early as 1905, however, influential locals tried to conserve the fort. J. L. Millspaugh, one of the merchants contracted to supply Fort Concho, suggested without success that the city buy it. That same year, realtor C. A. Broome formed the Fort Concho Realty Company in 1905 to sell his properties on the forts grounds to the city. The eastern third of the fort grounds, which had remained preserved, was given to the city by the Santa Fe Railroad Company in 1913. Eleven years later, the Daughters of the American Revolution raised funds to preserve the fort and secured a designation for it as a Texas state historic site, with accompanying plaque.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, a local named Ginevra Wood Carson acquired a room in the Tom Green County Courthouse for an exhibit on local history, and there established what would become the Fort Concho Museum. After the museum began expanding into other rooms of the courthouse, Carson moved it into Fort Concho&#39;s headquarters building on August 8, 1930. Carson struggled to raise a sum of $6,000 ($, adjusted for inflation) to purchase the building from its owner, who in 1935 relented and accepted the $3,000 ($, adjusted for inflation) she had been able to raise. That same year, the city of San Angelo assumed partial administrative responsibility for the museum, to be managed by a board of directors headed by Carson until she retired in 1953. Funding for the museum was slashed during the Great Depression and World War II, though four buildings were acquired in 1939. Further acquisitions occurred in the later 1940s, until the 1950s Texas drought again strained municipal resources. The museum was made a department of the city of San Angelo in 1955, but only one property purchased in that decade; the Fort Concho Museum by this time controlled only about a quarter of the fort grounds. In the 1960s, the city of San Angelo sought to cede the Fort Concho Museum to the federal and state governments, but both were prioritizing other Texas forts.</p><br>
<p>On July 4, 1961, Fort Concho was named a National Historic Landmark District, and on October 15, 1966, it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, by the National Park Service (NPS). A plan was prepared by the NPS in 1961, and again in 1967. In 1980, the Fort Concho Museum collaborated with Bell, Klein and Hoffman, an Austin-based architecture firm specializing in restorations, to prepare another, three-phase plan to acquire the rest of the forts grounds and demolish its 19th and 20th century modifications. The museum began implementing that plan in 1981, spending over $900,000 ($). Those funds were raised by matched grants from the NPS via the Historic Preservation Fund. The parade ground was then brought fully under the museums control with the move of the school to a new campus. An NPS survey in June 1985 found that the fort was in generally good condition, though a number of later buildings were still on its grounds. On January 1, 1986, it was named a Texas State Antiquities Landmark by the Texas Historical Commission. By 1989, the district consisted of 16 original buildings, six reconstructed buildings, and a stabilized ruin.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, an anonymous donor gave $2,000,000 ($, adjusted for inflation) to the Fort Concho Museum. Two years later, the museum announced that it would use the donated money and other proceeds to expand its visitors center and rebuild Barracks 3 and 4 over 2018. No commissions were made until December 2020, however, when the City of San Angelo announced imminent repairs to 14 buildings, and that the reconstructed Barracks 3 and the mess hall of Barracks 4 would house a research library on loan to the museum. A permit was issued for the reconstruction of Barracks 3 and 4 in September 2021.</p><br>
<h3>Involvement in the YFZ ranch raid</h3><br>
<p>On April 3, 2008, following a call from an alleged victim of abuse by members of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, a polygamist Mormon sect, Texas authorities raided the YFZ Ranch, On June 2, the Texas Supreme Court ruled that the seizure of the children was unlawful, and the children were released from state custody.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds and architecture</h2><br>
<p>the Fort Concho Historic District consists of 25 buildings standing on a 40 acre site, with a museum collection of 40,000 items. The districts boundaries are formed by East Avenue A and the railroad track to the north, South Oakes Street to the west, a fence behind Officers Row to the south, and a service road behind the administrative buildings to the east. The fort is visited annually by 55,000 people.</p><br>
<p>Fort Concho, like the forts built and operated by the US Army in Texas, is not fortified. It was designed as a cantonment, where troops could recuperate after being on campaign. Its buildings are arranged around a parade ground, measuring 1,000 ft long by 500 ft wide, that was the hub of its activity. The design of those buildings is a blend of the Neoclassical and Territorial styles, with the only ornament in the buildings being the stone lintels over each window. Each building was constructed from limestone upon a low-lying stone foundation, usually with an attached wooden veranda, with gabled roofs shingled in wood. A low, stone wall surrounded the fort to keep buffalo out of the fort. The material used in the fort&#39;s construction was sourced externally; the stone and mortar came from Ben Ficklin, to the south of the fort, and the wood was shipped from the Gulf Coast, as the native pecan and mesquite were unsuitable for construction.</p><br>
<h3>Barracks Row</h3><br>
<p>Barracks Row is made up by the six enlisted men&#39;s barracks that line the northern side of the parade ground. The barracks are rectangular, one-story dormitories with an attached kitchen and mess hall to the north of each barracks. They are topped with hipped roofs, crowned with one windcatcher and one single chimney each. A veranda wraps each barracks, but not their attached mess halls. North of the barracks are the stables, built like the rest of the fort, but with a flat roof.</p><br>
<p>Barracks 1 and 2 were built in 1869 and 1870, respectively, and each contained two cavalry companies. These barracks are unique in having sally ports at their centers for leading horses through, rather than around, the barracks to reach the stables. Barracks 1 had two dining halls to Barracks 2s one, but they were demolished sometime after the fort was abandoned. Barracks 1 is the visitors center, while Barracks 2 is a display space housing wagons and replica artillery pieces. Barracks 1 and 2 were acquired by the Fort Concho Museum in 1981.</p><br>
<p>The other four barracks buildings were built to house infantrymen. Barracks 5 and 6 were built in 1871 and remodeled in the 1920s to house a unit of US National Guard. The buildings had mostly fallen to ruin by 1947, when they were purchased by the Fort Concho Museum. Reconstruction of Barracks 5 and 6 was completed in 1951 as living history spaces. A veranda wraps around the mess halls. Barracks 3 and 4, which were demolished after the fort was abandoned and remain ruins, were identical to Barracks 5 and 6.</p><br>
<h3>Administrative Row</h3><br>
<p>The commissary and quartermasters warehouse, built to the same plan in 1868 and 1869, respectively, are the oldest buildings in the city of San Angelo. The commissary was purchased by the city government in 1939, but was used as a garage by the municipal transit department until 1974. It was restored in 1980 and then used as a meeting space. The quartermasters warehouse opened in 1985 as an art museum.</p><br>
<p>The headquarters building was constructed on Griersons orders in 1876, a decade into the forts military operation. The building is U-shaped, opening to the east, with two chimneys in the main structure and one in the north and south wings. A veranda is attached to the façade and back of the building, between the wings. The headquarters building was used in various capacities in the 20 years after the US Army left Fort Concho. Four of the rooms on the ground floor, the court martial, orderlys room, adjutants office, and regimental headquarters, have been remodeled to appear as they would have during the forts military career. About 50 ft behind the headquarters building is the former residence of Oscar Ruffini, San Angelos first civic architect. The house was moved to its present location on May 14, 1951.</p><br>
<p>The original hospital was built from 1868 to 1870. After the fort&#39;s deactivation, the hospital was used as a rooming house and for storage until it was destroyed by fire in 1911. The building was rebuilt in the mid-1980s with the aid of architectural and historical records. The hospital contains a museum about frontier medicine in its north ward, a library in the south ward, and general medical exhibits in the center.</p><br>
<h3>Officers&#39; Row</h3><br>
<p>The Officers Row are the ten buildings on the south side of the parade ground, comprised by Officers Quarters 1 through 9 and the schoolhouse and chapel. These houses were built in several phases from 1869 to the mid-1870s. They generally follow an L-shaped plan with a primary residential building and kitchen, connected by a veranda. Interiors consisted of four equally sized rooms and a central hallway on the first floor and two more rooms on a second. The houses have three fireplaces; two in the main building and a third in the kitchen.</p><br>
<p>Officers Quarters 1 was built from 1870 to 1872 and served as the commanding officers residence. Grierson, who lived there from 1875 to 1882,</p><br>
<p>added a kitchen and office onto the building, on the south and west ends, respectively, in 1881. Grierson also added a carriage house and placed locks on every door in the building. The Fort Concho Museum purchased the building in 1964. In 1994, it was renovated and became the Concho Valley Pioneer Heritage Center. Officers Quarters 8 and 9 were built to the same plan as Officers Quarters 1 and were also completed in 1872. Another room was added to the south side of Officers Quarters 8 in 1936. Officers Quarters 9 was restored to its original appearance in 1905.</p><br>
<p>Officers Quarters 2, 4, 5, and 6 were all built in 1870 and all follow the general plan. Their roofs extend over the verandas to cover them. Officers Quarters 2 was purchased by the Fort Concho Museum in 1952. Officers Quarters 5 is a ruin; only its foundations remain. About 90 ft to the south of Officers Quarters 5 is the site of a carriage house thought to be associated with the house. Officer&#39;s Quarters 6 was damaged by fire in 1961, but was repaired and turned into a living history exhibit.</p><br>
<p>Officers Quarters 3 was built in 1870, possibly in March, which would make it the first of the officers houses to be completed. The house was the fort commanders residence until Officers Quarters 1 and 2 were finished. The building has a total of five rooms, as it lacks a second floor. The two structures making up Officer&#39;s Quarters 7 were built from 1870 to 1877 to house field officers and their families. The buildings form a duplex and stand to the same height and have two fireplaces each. A porch connects the 15 ft between the buildings. On July 13, 1990, the E. H. Danner Museum of Telephony, part of the West Texas Collection of Angelo State University, was opened in the building.</p><br>
<p>The schoolhouse and chapel was completed and dedicated on February 22, 1879, making it the last permanent structure to be completed during its military career. The chapel is built like the officers&#39; residences and it was first intended to be another duplex. Funding was only sufficient for the foundation of the kitchen to be completed, so the building was finished as the present schoolhouse and chapel. After the US Army left, the building continued to function as a schoolhouse, and at one point, a private home. The Fort Concho Museum purchased the schoolhouse in 1946 and restored it with funds raised by US military personnel on nearby Goodfellow Air Force Base.</p><br>
<p>West Hartford is an unincorporated community village in the town of Hartford, Windsor County, Vermont, United States. It is one of Hartford&#39;s five villages, situated on the White River and crossed by the Appalachian Trail.</p><br>
<p>West Hartford no longer has a post office, but still has a local library, and a town park. The White River, is a nearby fishing site. The village&#39;s center is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the West Hartford Village Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>West Hartford is located in far northern Hartford, seven river miles up the White River from its mouth at the Connecticut River. Its center is at geographical coordinates 43° 42′ 44" North, 72° 25′ 7" West (43.71212, -72.418541). The White River runs through the Village and along Clifford Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The village of West Hartford was settled during the late 18th century, primarily organized around mills and outlying agricultural areas. The oldest surviving house in the village was built in 1795 by Francis and Abigail (Hazen) Savage. Abigail was the granddaughter of the area&#39;s first colonial landowner. A turnpike, now Vermont Route 14, was built along the river in 1800. The focal center of the village was established at Harper Savage Lane by construction of its first bridge to span the White River in 1820, and then by the construction of a railroad station nearby. By 1830, the village had a church and post office, and the village continued to thrive during the 19th century, mainly due to its proximity to White River Junction, an important railroad hub in the region. Much of the village was destroyed by a major flood in 1867. This natural disaster destroyed much of the local industry, with the exception of retail which continued, driven by the presence of the railroad.</p><br>
<p>In the spring of 1927, the Vermont rivers flooded, taking out several bridges including the West Hartford Bridge, then a covered bridge. Shortly after the flood, the bridges were all replaced with simple contemporary bridges that were tall, green, and steel trussed. In 2006, the West Hartford Bridge was replaced with a new single-span bridge named Veterans Bridge. The old bridge had a pool off of the downstream side where locals would jump off the bridge into the water. The new bridge is in a location where it is dangerous to jump because the deep pool is no longer accessible, although teens, children, and adults still jump off the bridge. At the foot of the new bridge, there is a small area in remembrance of Hartford Veterans.</p><br>
<p>Clifford Park is a town maintained park that includes nature trails, a softball field, horseshoe pits, and a picnic area on the river. Every summer, it is turned into a major landing area for the hot air balloons that have taken off at the Quechee Balloon Festival, and every Halloween it is the Haunted Area for local youths sponsored by the Hartford Parks and Recreation Department. The park is named Clifford, after the former owner of the land that now holds the park, and the land that is the Westfield Drive community.</p><br>
<p>On August 28, 2011, West Hartford was hit by Tropical Storm Irene. Several houses, the country store, the library, and the post office were affected. The post office was torn down, the store repaired, and the library has been rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>The bridge and road also suffered damage from this event. The bridge was out of commission for several weeks, forcing people to find alternative routes to get to work and into more populated areas. As for the road, Route 14, it was usable to a certain point. It was repaired slowly and in the village itself there were several large holes where the river gouged away the pavement, dirt, and gravel. In August 29, residents and volunteers were using their tractors and snowplows to clear Route 14 of mud and debris. The town&#39;s church was used as a place for gathering donated items and food to be collected for the victims of Storm Irene.</p><br>
<p>The storm left Clifford Park significantly damaged. It accumulated at least a foot of mud, and the playground, basketball half-court, tennis courts, and baseball field all had to be reconstructed. There are picnic tables underneath a shade structure, and benches stand here and there around the perimeter of the field, and the gravel parking lot is now outlined by a wooden fence.</p><br>
<p>Debris has been cleared and restoration is complete, but evidence of the storm&#39;s destruction can still be observed. Houses, roads, and riverbanks still bear the mark of Irene in erosion and weathering.</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>West Hartford elementary students attend Ottauquechee School in Quechee, VT (K-5) and attend middle and high school at Hartford Memorial Middle School (6-8) and Hartford High School (9-12). Large private schools in the area include: the Upper Valley Waldorf School in Quechee (K-8), Mid Vermont Christian School in Quechee (K-6) and the Middle School (7-8) and High School (9-12).</p><br>
<p>The Fort Randall Military Post was established in 1856 to help keep peace on the frontier. It was located on the south side of the Missouri River in South Dakota, just below the present site of the Fort Randall Dam.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site for the fort was selected in 1856 by General William S. Harney. The fort served as a strategic site on the river to defend two lines of transportation; it operated for 36 years. It was named for Colonel Daniel Randall, a career Army officer who also served as Deputy Paymaster General of the Army</p><br>
<p>Its strategic location along the Missouri River made it a key fort in two lines of western frontier defense. It was the last link in a chain of forts protecting the overland route along the Platte River. It was also the first fort in a chain of forts on the upper Missouri River. The most important mission assigned to the soldiers of Fort Randall was to mount expeditions to try to control the many Indian tribes on the Great Plains, primarily the Teton Sioux (Lakota people).</p><br>
<p>After serving as an important base in the Indian Wars, Fort Randall closed in 1892.</p><br>
<p>Fort Randall is located in Gregory County, South Dakota at 43° 01 north latitude, 98° 37 west longitude (43.0244, -98.6242).</p><br>
<h2>Site today</h2><br>
<p>The USA Army Corps of Engineers-Fort Randall Dam Project maintains the site which is open to the public. The fort&#39;s ruins are open for display with interpretive signage. In 2003, the Corps erected a stabilizing structure to help preserve the remains of the historic chapel.</p><br>
<p>Etowah Indian Mounds  are a 54 acre archaeological site in Bartow County, Georgia, south of Cartersville. Built and occupied in three phases, from 1000–1550 CE, the prehistoric site is located on the north shore of the Etowah River.</p><br>
<p>Etowah Indian Mounds Historic Site is a designated National Historic Landmark, managed by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources. It is considered "the most intact Mississippian culture site in the Southeast", according to Georgia State Parks and Historic Sites. Both the historic Muscogee Creek and the Cherokee peoples, who each occupied this area at varying times, hold the site to be sacred.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>This site was professionally excavated beginning in the early 20th century. Additional studies have been undertaken as more evidence and knowledge has accumulated about the succession of cultures in this area, aided by modern technology such as radio carbon dating and magnetometers.</p><br>
<p>Late 20th-century studies showed the mounds were built and occupied by prehistoric indigenous peoples of the South Appalachian Mississippian culture (a regional variation of the Mississippian culture) of eastern North America. They were ancestors of the historic Muskogean language-speaking Muscogee Creek people who later emerged in this area.</p><br>
<p>Etowah is a Muskogee word derived from italwa, meaning "town". From 1000–1550 CE, during the Mississippian culture era, Etowah was occupied by a series of cycling chiefdoms (see Coosa confederacy) over the course of five and a half centuries. The Hernando de Soto expedition encountered a settlement called Itaba between Coosa and Ulibahali, which was likely Etowah. The historic Muscogee Creek formed in this region and occupied this area. They were later pushed out by the Cherokee, who migrated from eastern Georgia and Tennessee to evade European-American pressure.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century, European-American settlers mistakenly believed that the mounds had been built by the historic Cherokee, who occupied the region at the time. But many researchers now believe that because the Iroquoian-speaking tribe did not reach this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, they could not have built the mounds. The earthworks have been dated to much earlier periods.</p><br>
<p>In the 21st century, the federally recognized Muscogee (Creek) Nation, now based in Oklahoma, and the Poarch Band of Creek Indians of Alabama both consider Italwa to be their most important ancestral town. The Cherokee also revere it.</p><br>
<h3>Site chronology</h3><br>
<p>Tykeon Wilkes used changes in ceramic styles across multiple sites in the Etowah River Valley to determine timelines for the region. The ceramics found at Etowah and other regional sites have been reconstructed and allow Etowah to be placed into the following sequences. The town was occupied in three distinct archaeological phases: CE, CE, and CE. It was at its peak from CE.</p><br>
<h2>Site description</h2><br>
<p>Etowah has three main platform mounds and three lesser mounds. The Temple Mound, Mound A, is 63 ft high, taller than a six-story building, and covers 3 acre at its base. In 2005–2008 ground mapping with magnetometers revealed new information and data, showing that the site was much more complex than had previously been believed.</p><br>
<p>The study team has identified a total of 140 buildings on the site. In addition, Mound A was found to have had four major structures and a courtyard during the height of the community&#39;s power. Mound B is 25 ft high; Mound C, which rises 10 ft, is the only one to have been completely excavated. Magnetometers enabled archaeologists to determine the location of temples of log and thatch, which were originally built on the summits of the mounds. Adjacent to the mounds is a raised, level, ceremonial plaza, which was constructed to be used for ceremonies, stickball and chunkey games, and as a bazaar for trade goods.</p><br>
<p>When visiting the Etowah Mounds, guests can view the "borrow pits" (which archaeologists at one time thought were moats), where workers dug earth to construct the three large mounds in the center of the park.</p><br>
<p>Older pottery found on the site suggest that there was an earlier village ( BCE–600 CE) associated with the Swift Creek culture. This earlier Middle Woodland period occupation at Etowah may have been related to the major Swift Creek center of Leake Mounds, approximately two miles downstream (west) of Etowah.</p><br>
<p>War was commonplace; many archaeologists believe the people of Etowah battled for hegemony over the Alabama River basin with those of Moundville, a Mississippian site in present-day Alabama. The town was protected by a sophisticated semicircular fortification system. An outer band formed by nut tree orchards prevented enemy armies from shooting masses of flaming arrows into the town. A 9 ft to 10 ft-deep moat blocked direct contact by the enemy with the palisaded walls. It also functioned as a drainage system during major floods, common for centuries, from this period and into the 20th century. Workers formed the palisade by setting upright 12 ft high logs into a ditch approximately 12 in on center. They back-filled around the timbers to form a levee. Guard towers for archers were spaced approximately 80 ft apart.</p><br>
<h3>Artifacts</h3><br>
<p>The artifacts discovered in burials within the Etowah site indicate that its residents developed an artistically and technically advanced culture. Numerous copper tools, weapons and ornamental copper plates accompanied the burials of members of Etowah&#39;s elite class. Where proximity to copper protected textile fibers from degeneration, archaeologists also found brightly colored cloth with ornate patterns. These were the remnants of the clothing of social elites.</p><br>
<p>Numerous clay figurines and ten Mississippian stone statues have been found through the years in the vicinity of Etowah. Many are paired statues, which portray a man sitting cross-legged and a woman kneeling. The female figures wear wrap-around skirts and males are usually portrayed without visible clothing, although both usually have elaborate hairstyles. The pair are thought to represent lineage ancestors. Individual statues of young women also show them kneeling, but with additional characteristics such as visible sex organs, which are not visible on the paired statues. This female figure is thought to represent a fertility or Earth Mother goddess. The birdman, hand in eye, solar cross, and other symbols associated with the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex appear in many artifacts found at Etowah.</p><br>
<h3>Trade</h3><br>
<p>The Etowah River is a tributary of the Coosa and Alabama rivers, and forms the border between the southern edge of the Ridge and Valley Appalachians and the Piedmont Plateau. Trade and tribute brought whelk shells from the Gulf of Mexico; copper, mica and flint from the Cumberland Plateau; and "galena, graphite, and an array of ochers to provide pigment for painting buildings, bodies, and works of art; greenstone and marble to furnish raw material for tools, weapons and ritual objects" from the Piedmont. The loamy riverbed soil could be easily tilled with digging sticks and stone and shell hoes. Its fertility was annually renewed by the river&#39;s floods. Free of frost most of the year, the land yielded rich harvests of corn, beans, and squash, traditional crops of the indigenous peoples.</p><br>
<h3>Habitat</h3><br>
<p>Chestnut, walnut, hickory, and persimmon trees that grew in upland forests provided nuts and fruit for both the people of Etowah and the white-tailed deer, wild turkey, and smaller game they hunted. Other plants that were gathered include stinging nettle and paper mulberry. A native holly was gathered whose leaves and stems were brewed into the Black drink imbibed in ritual purification ceremonies. River cane grew in dense thickets and was made into arrow shafts, thatching for roofs, and splits for weaving baskets, benches, and mats for walls and floors.</p><br>
<p>River shoals abounded in freshwater mussels and turtles. The Mississippians built v-shaped rock weirs to pen and channel catfish, drum and gar, which they caught in rivercane baskets. Researchers have found remains of more than 100 rock weirs along the Etowah River. One has been restored within the grounds of the historic site.</p><br>
<h2>Post-contact</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological research on the subject is not conclusive, but the Etowah site may be the same as a village of a similar name visited by Spanish conquistador Hernando de Soto in 1540. The chroniclers of the de Soto Expedition made no mention of any large mounds in their record of visiting a town named Itaba, though historian Dr. Marvin T. Smith suggests that the mounds which were likely overgrown and unmaintained by the time of the expedition may simply not have attracted the attention of Spanish explorers. Itaba means "boundary" or trail crossing in the Alabama language. The English name for the mounds, Etowah, was derived from an archaic Muscogee place name, Italwa. Italwa probably originally referred to the solar cross symbol. In the modern Muskogee language it means "town."</p><br>
<p>Until studies of the late 20th century were published, most European-American people in Georgia believed Etowah to have been built by the well-known historic Cherokee. But, the Cherokee did not arrive in this part of Georgia until the late 18th century, two to seven centuries after the mounds were constructed. Most scholars believe that the mound complex was likely built by people of the South Appalachian Mississippian culture. They are considered ancestral to the historic Muscogee, long known as the Creek people. Most of the peoples of the Creek Confederacy were removed to Indian Territory in the 1830s.</p><br>
<p>Since that time, the Creek descendants have formed two federally recognized tribes: the largest is the Muscogee (Creek) Nation in Oklahoma; the Poarch Band of Creek Indians in Alabama is the only federally recognized tribe in the state. Both consider Italwa, or Etowah, to be their most important ancestral town. The official title of the Creek Nation&#39;s Principal Chief is Italwa Mikko (the Muskogee word for chief is miko). A new, large-scale model of Italwa is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Muskogee (Creek) Capitol in Okmulgee, Oklahoma.</p><br>
<h2>History of excavation and studies</h2><br>
<p>Missionary Elias Cornelius visited the site in 1817 and described it in his journal published by Bela Bates Edwards in 1833. He realized a mound must have been over two hundred years old, due to the size of trees growing on it, but had little idea of its real history. Cyrus Thomas and John P. Rogan tested the site in 1883 for the Smithsonian Institution, which was conducting a survey of recognized mound sites.</p><br>
<p>The first well-documented archaeological inquiry at the site did not begin until the winter of 1925, conducted by Warren K. Moorehead. His excavations into Mound C at the site revealed a rich array of Mississippian culture burial goods. These artifacts, along with the collections from Cahokia, Moundville site, Lake Jackson Mounds, and Spiro Mounds, would comprise the majority of the materials which archaeologists used to define the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). The professional excavation of this enormous burial mound contributed major research impetus to the study of Mississippian artifacts and peoples. It greatly increased the understanding of pre-Contact Native American artwork.</p><br>
<p>Arthur R. Kelly, founding chairman of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Georgia, also conducted professional excavations and studies at Etowah Mounds, prior to planned flood control projects in the area. In 1947, the government built the Allatoona Dam upstream for flood control. The Etowah site was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1964.</p><br>
<p>The Etowah Indian Mounds museum displays artifacts found at the site, including Mississippian culture pottery, monolithic stone axes, Mississippian stone statuary, copper jewelry, shell gorgets, and other artifacts.</p><br>
<p>Fort Towson was a frontier outpost for Frontier Army Quartermasters along the Permanent Indian Frontier located about two miles  northeast of the present community of Fort Towson, Oklahoma. Located on Gates Creek near the confluence of the Kiamichi River and the Red River in present-day Choctaw County, Oklahoma, it was named for General Nathaniel Towson.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<p>Fort Towson was established in May 1824, under Col. Matthew Arbuckle, on the southern edge of Indian Territory to guard the border with Spanish colonial territory to the south. It was named for Nathaniel Towson, Paymaster General of the Army. It was originally called "Cantonment Towson." A military trace was constructed in the 1820s as a wagon trail to connect the fort to other military forts in Arkansas. The fort was abandoned in April 1829, and the garrison moved to Fort Jessup. The cantonment was intended only as a temporary facility, having nothing but tents and a few wooden shacks.</p><br>
<p>In November 1830, the Army ordered the construction of a permanent fort in the area, as it had been assigned for the relocation of the Choctaw from present-day what became Mississippi, under the Indian Removal Act. A new site was chosen about 6 mi from the original site. The new fort was reestablished as "Camp Phoenix" to protect the Choctaw Nation. It was renamed as Fort Towson in 1831. Gradually a settlement developed around it.</p><br>
<h2>Fort description</h2><br>
<p>The new Fort Towson was much more substantial. The north side was atop the bluffs of Gates Creek. The fort occupied a rectangle containing about half an acre. The officers&#39; quarters consisted of three buildings on the north side of the rectangle. These structures were built of logs, 1.5 stories tall, with 3 ft limestone foundations and covered porches facing south. Four other buildings were located on two sides of the rectangle, facing each other. These were one story high, but had higher foundations, effectively creating basements.</p><br>
<p>Those closest to the officers quarters were a combination of sub-officers quarters, quartermasters office, amusement parlor, and school room. The last two buildings were barracks for common soldiers. The kitchens and dining halls were in the basements. All the buildings were painted white. The square in front of the buildings served as a parade ground. A hospital building was on the east side, about 250 ft from the last barracks building. Stables, shops and gardens were outside the rectangle on the east. The sutlers building, the dairy and poultry yards were outside the rectangle on the west. The cemetery was about 300 yd farther west.</p><br>
<h2>Conversion to Choctaw Agency</h2><br>
<p>After the construction of Fort Washita 70 mi to the west in 1842, Fort Towson lost importance. It was garrisoned until June 1854. At that time, it was turned over to the use of the Choctaw Indian Agency, then run by Indian Agent Douglas H. Cooper. A storm in the same month blew the roofs off several buildings and did some other damage to the facility. A few years later, a fire destroyed all of the buildings except one of the barracks and the hospital. The remaining facilities are now managed by the Oklahoma Historical Society.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War and abandonment</h2><br>
<p>At the beginning of the American Civil War, the Confederacy took over the remaining buildings of the fort. They had created an alliance with the Choctaw, promising them and other tribes a state of their own if the Confederacy won their war. The fort was used as the headquarters of Confederate General Samuel B. Maxey. The last remaining Confederate Army troops were commanded by General Stand Watie (Cherokee), a principal chief of his nation until the end of the war. He surrendered to Union forces at Fort Towson on June 23, 1865.</p><br>
<p>The post was abandoned at the close of the Civil War. Soldiers buried in the cemetery were moved to Fort Gibson. The buildings fell into ruin and foundation stones were hauled off by local residents to be used for other buildings.</p><br>
<p>The location of the fort is designated as an Oklahoma Historic Site. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places (#70000531) in 1970.</p><br>
<p>The Mathias Ham House is a 19th-century house in Dubuque, Iowa, that is on the National Register of Historic Places. It is located at the intersection of Shiras and Lincoln Avenues,</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The house was designed by John F. Rague and built for local businessman and lead miner Mathias Ham in 1857. Ham had owned an island in the Mississippi River at Dubuque, called Ham&#39;s Island (which has since renamed City Island and then Chaplain Schmitt Memorial Island, after Father Aloysius Schmitt). The architect, John F. Rague, who had designed the original state capitol buildings at Springfield, Illinois and at Iowa City, Iowa, designed the house in the Italian Villa style.</p><br>
<p>The Mathias Ham House has been restored and transformed into a museum showcasing life during the Antebellum era; it contains American and European furnishings from that period. The property also features the Louis Arriandeaux Log House, a double log cabin in the dogtrot style, which is considered the oldest building in Iowa. The cabin was built in 1833 at 2nd and Locust Streets in Dubuque, then moved to Eagle Point Park in Dubuque before being moved to the Mathias Ham House Historic Site.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, a one-room schoolhouse (the former Humke School) was relocated to the property. A replica mine shaft and "badger hole" or "badger hut" were constructed on the property to educate the public about Dubuque&#39;s lead mining history.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum is operated by the Dubuque County Historical Society, which also operates the National Mississippi River Museum & Aquarium.</p><br>
<p>Mintons Playhouse is a jazz club and bar located on the first floor of the Cecil Hotel at 210 West 118th Street in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City. It is a registered trademark of Housing and Services, Inc. a New York City nonprofit provider of supportive housing. The door to the actual club itself is at 206 West 118th Street where there is a small plaque. Mintons was founded by tenor saxophonist Henry Minton in 1938. Mintons is known for its role in the development of modern jazz, also known as bebop, where in its jam sessions in the early 1940s, Thelonious Monk, Bud Powell, Kenny Clarke, Charlie Christian, Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie pioneered the new music. Mintons thrived for three decades until its decline near the end of the 1960s, and its eventual closure in 1974. After being closed for more than 30 years, the newly remodeled club reopened on May 19, 2006, under the name Uptown Lounge at Mintons Playhouse, which operated until 2010, before re-opening as Mintons Playhouse in 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Beginnings</h2><br>
<p>Minton&#39;s original owner, Henry Minton, was known in Harlem for being the first ever black delegate to the American Federation of Musicians Local 802. In addition, he had been the manager of the</p><br>
<p>Rhythm Club, in Harlem, in the early part of the 1930s, a venue which Louis Armstrong, Fats Waller, James P. Johnson, and Earl Hines frequented. The novelist Ralph Ellison later wrote that because of his union background and music business experience, Minton was aware of the economic and artistic needs of jazz musicians in New York in the late 1930s. Minton&#39;s popularity and his penchant for generosity with food and loans made his club a favorite hang-out for musicians.</p><br>
<p>Minton developed a policy of holding regular jam sessions at his club, which would later prove to be a significant factor in the development of bebop. Because of his union ties, Minton was able to ensure that musicians would not be fined for their participation in jam sessions, an activity that was prohibited by the union. Dizzy Gillespie recalled that there were "walking" delegates from the union that would follow musicians around and fine them "a hundred to five hundred dollars" for participating in jam sessions, but that they were "somewhat immune from this at Mintons because of Henry Minton". According to Ralph Ellison, Mintons Playhouse provided "a retreat, a homogeneous community where a collectivity of common experience could find continuity and meaningful expression".</p><br>
<h2>1940s</h2><br>
<p>In late 1940, Minton hired Teddy Hill, a former bandleader, to manage the club. Both Clarke and Guy were in Teddy Hills band before it disbanded in 1939. According to Clarke, Teddy Hill wanted to "do something for the guys that had worked with him" by giving them work during difficult times. The house band at Mintons in 1941, with the addition of frequent guests, Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Christian, was at the center of the emergence of bebop in the early 1940s. Later, the band was led by tenor saxophonist Kermit Scott.</p><br>
<h2>Monday celebrity nights</h2><br>
<p>A feature of Mintons Playhouse during Teddy Hills tenure as manager was the Monday Celebrity Nights sponsored by the Schiffmans who owned the nearby Apollo Theater. The Schiffmans treated their performers to free dinner and drinks after the conclusion of a long week of work. The food at Mintons became almost as popular as the music as noted by many present at that time. In an interview with Al Fraser (1979), Dizzy Gillespie told his recollection of Monday nights at Mintons:</p><br>
<p>On Monday nights, we used to have a ball. Everybody from the Apollo, on Monday nights, was a guest at Mintons, the whole band. We had a big jam session. Monday night was the big night, the musicians night off. There was always some food there for you. Oh, that part was beautiful. Teddy Hill treated the guys well.</p><br>
<h2>Cutting sessions and duels</h2><br>
<p>During the Monday Celebrity Nights, many guest musicians such as Roy Eldridge, Hot Lips Page, Ben Webster, Don Byas, and Lester Young would sit in. The trumpet duels between Roy Eldridge and Dizzy Gillespie became legendary, with Gillespie eventually surpassing his mentor. Speaking to Al Fraser, Gillespie recalled how Thelonious Monk one night teased Eldridge after being out-played by Gillespie saying, "Look, youre supposed to be the greatest trumpet player in the world... but thats the best." Eldridge was an established musician in the older swing style, but he was an active figure at Minton&#39;s and contributed through his encouragement of Gillespie and Clarke to further their explorations.</p><br>
<p>Eldridge and the other swing musicians who participated in the early cutting sessions at Minton&#39;s played an important role in the evolution of swing toward bebop by inspiring the next generation of musicians. A young Sonny Stitt witnessed the great battles between the master saxophonists of the day in the early 1940s:</p><br>
<p>Can you imagine Lester Young, Coleman Hawkins, Chu Berry, Don Byas, and Ben Webster on the same little jam session? They had a place called Mintons Playhouse in New York. Its kaput now. And these guys, man, nothing like it. And guess who won the fight?... Don Byas walked off with everything.</p><br>
<p>Byas was one of the first tenor saxophonists to assimilate bebop into his style, in contrast to Young, Hawkins, and Webster, who stayed close to their swing roots through the development of bebop.</p><br>
<p>Herman Pritchard, who tended bar at Mintons "in the old days", would watch as Ben Webster and Lester Young would "fight on those saxophones... like dogs in the road". Ralph Ellison believes that what was occurring at Mintons from 1941 to 1942 was a "continuing symposium of jazz, a summation of all the styles, personal and traditional, of jazz".</p><br>
<h2>Charlie Christian and the house band</h2><br>
<p>One of the pioneers of the new style, which would eventually become known as bebop, was the young electric guitarist from Benny Goodmans band, Charlie Christian. He played nightly at Mintons and was one of its stars. Christian was in his mid-twenties in 1941; his time at Mintons was significant, but brief; he would die the following March suffering from tuberculosis in a sanatorium. As evidenced by recordings made by Columbia University student Jerry Newman in 1941, Christians playing was breaking new ground. Gunther Schullers assessment of Christians playing on those recordings is as follows:</p><br>
<p>His work here seems to me relentlessly creative, endlessly fertile, and is so in a way that marks a new stylistic departure. Indeed, it signals the birth of a new language in jazz, which even Parker did not have as clearly in focus at that time.</p><br>
<p>Kenny Clarke and the band at Mintons would look forward with anticipation to Christians arrival after finishing his set with Goodman. Christian was admired by his peers at Minton&#39;s, including Thelonious Monk who "loved listening to Charlie play solos with fluid lines and interesting harmonies". Hill bought Christian an amplifier to use so he would not have to bring his along. Hill retained it up until his death in 1978.</p><br>
<h2>Bird and Dizzy</h2><br>
<p>Soon after Charlie Christians death, alto saxophonist Charlie Parker emerged as a new leader of the bebop movement. Parkers collaboration with Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk and Kenny Clarke, at sessions at Mintons, would build on the earlier experiments of Christian. Before 1942, Parker was known to have spent more time at Clark Monroes Uptown House, another Harlem club where jam sessions extended into the early morning than he spent playing at Mintons. After leaving Jay McShanns band at the end of 1941, Parker joined Earl Hiness band in 1942 and was reunited with Dizzy Gillespie, whom he had met sometime earlier. It was during this period of time starting in 1942 that Parker, nicknamed Bird, could be found sitting-in at Mintons on Monday nights as recalled by Miles Davis:</p><br>
<p>On Monday nights at Mintons, Bird and Dizzy would come in to jam, so youd have a thousand up there trying to get in so they could listen to and play with Bird and Dizzy. But most of the musicians in the know didn&#39;t even think about playing when Bird and Dizzy came to jam. We would just sit out in the audience, to listen and learn.</p><br>
<p>Parker never was officially a member of the house band at Minton&#39;s during that period. However, sensing his importance to the bebop movement, Clarke and Monk approached Teddy Hill about hiring Parker into the band. Hill refused so Clarke and Monk decided to pay Parker out of their salaries.</p><br>
<p>After Parkers arrival on the scene in Harlem, other new players followed. Miles Davis, Fats Navarro, Dexter Gordon, Art Blakey, Max Roach and many others were drawn to Mintons. Miles Daviss search for Charlie Parker brought him to Mintons where he "cut his teeth" at the jam sessions. Davis remembered:</p><br>
<p>The way went down up at Minton&#39;s was you brought your horn and hoped that Bird and Dizzy would invite you to play with them up on stage. And when this happened you better not blow it... People would watch for clues from Bird and Dizzy, and if they smiled when you finished playing, then that meant your playing was good.</p><br>
<h2>Sitting-in</h2><br>
<p>The house band at Mintons Playhouse developed ways of weeding out less skilled musicians who wanted to sit in. According to bassist Milt Hinton, Gillespie prompted the band to play standards, such as Gershwins "I Got Rhythm", in difficult keys in order to discourage beginners from sitting in. Bassist Charles Mingus remembered being required to audition to get up on stage:</p><br>
<p>To play at Mintons you couldnt just walk in and grab a bass. They made you go in a back room or a kitchen and call a few tunes. They did it to me too. They said, "Can you play Perdido? Can you play Body and Soul?"</p><br>
<p>Practices such as these challenged up-and-coming jazz musicians to get their acts together in order to participate in the jam sessions, which kept the music at a high level.</p><br>
<h2>End of an era</h2><br>
<p>Mintons changed its open jam policy in favor of big-name acts in the 1950s. By the late 1960s, bands were no longer at the cutting edge. Harlem writer, Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) wrote in Black Music (1967): "The groups that come into Mintons are stand-up replicas of what was a highly experimental twenty-five years ago." Although the club was open for a little more than three decades, Mintons Playhouse will always be associated with the 1940s and the jam sessions that gave birth to bebop. Mintons thrived for three decades until its decline near the end of the 1960s, and its eventual closure in 1974.</p><br>
<h2>Revival</h2><br>
<p>After being closed for more than 30 years, the newly remodeled club reopened on May 19, 2006, under the name Uptown Lounge at Minton&#39;s Playhouse. However, the reopened club was closed again in 2010.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, Richard Parsons revived Mintons as an upscale Jazz club and restaurant. The restaurants cuisine was entrusted to restaurant owner Alexander Smalls. The new club was designed by architect Sarah Garcia of Estudio Sarah Garcia and a new brand identity designed by New York designer John Simoudis.</p><br>
<p>The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Hotel Cecil and Minton&#39;s Playhouse as a city landmark on June 27, 2023.</p><br>
<p>The Little White House was the personal retreat of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd president of the United States, located in the Historic District of Warm Springs, Georgia. He first came to Warm Springs  in 1924 for polio treatment, and liked the area so much that, as Governor of New York, he had a home built on nearby Pine Mountain. The house was finished in 1932. Roosevelt kept the house after he became president, using it as a presidential retreat. He died there on April 12, 1945, three months into his fourth term.</p><br>
<p>The house was opened to the public as a museum in 1948. A major attraction of the museum is the portrait that the artist Elizabeth Shoumatoff was painting of him when he died, now known as the "Unfinished Portrait". It hangs near a finished portrait that Shoumatoff completed later from sketches and memory.</p><br>
<p>The house is operated by the State of Georgia as the Little White House Historic Site, also known as Roosevelt&#39;s Little White House Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Residents of Georgia, particularly Savannah, began spending vacations at Bullochville in the late 18th century as a way to escape yellow fever, attracted by the number of warm springs in the vicinity. In the late 19th century, traveling to the warm springs was a desirable way to escape from Atlanta. Traveling by railroad to Durand, people would then go to Bullochville. One of the places benefiting from this was the Meriwether Inn. Once the automobile became popular in the early 20th century, tourists began going elsewhere, starting the decline of the inn.</p><br>
<p>In 1921, Roosevelt, aged 39, was diagnosed with poliomyelitis. The few things that seemed to ease his pain were immersion in warm water, bathing and engaging in physical exercise. His first time in Warm Springs was October 1924. He went to a resort in the town that had a permanent 88 &deg;F natural spring, but whose main house was described as "ramshackle." Roosevelt bought the resort and the 1,700 acre farm surrounding it in 1927 (the resort became known as the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation). Five years later, in 1932, after winning the presidency for the first time, he ordered a six-room Georgia pine house to be built on the property. This house was his retreat throughout his presidency and became known as the Little White House. In total, he made 16 trips there during his presidency, usually spending two to three weeks at a time, as it took a day to reach Warm Springs from Washington, D.C. by train.</p><br>
<p>The Little White House is a six-room Colonial Revival structure made of Georgia pine. Three of the rooms were bedrooms: one for Roosevelt, one for his wife Eleanor, and one for his personal secretary. The other rooms were an entrance hall, a living room and a kitchen. Access to the Little White House was from an unpaved road that now only exists in parts. The garage-servants quarters was built in 1932, followed by the single-story frame cottage that served as a guesthouse in 1933, and finally a cottage for Georgia Wilkins in 1934. Wilkins family were the original owners of the property.</p><br>
<p>Roosevelt used the Little White House as a base to replace Georgia politicians who refused to follow his policies. This was most notable in 1938 when Roosevelt tried and failed to have United States Senator Walter George replaced with a Roosevelt loyalist, even though both were Democrats.</p><br>
<p>World War II affected Roosevelt&#39;s time at the Little White House. The only year he did not go to the Little White House was 1942, as he was preoccupied by the beginnings of US involvement in the war. It is believed that he vacationed as much as he did in 1943–45 at the Little White House because his real love for vacations, sailing on the Atlantic, was too dangerous during wartime, even if it was just on inland waterways like the Chesapeake Bay or the Potomac River. One major change was that soldiers from Fort Benning were stationed at the Little White House to patrol the woods surrounding the farm.</p><br>
<p>His last trip to the Little White House was on March 30, 1945. He felt he did not achieve enough rest at his Hyde Park home. According to some observers at Warm Springs, Roosevelt looked "ghastly" and his usual cordial waves to the residents were weak. Unlike his previous visits, he avoided the swimming pool he used to comfort himself in previous trips. On April 12, 1945, he was sitting for a portrait at the Little White House when he suffered a stroke. Roosevelt died two hours later of cerebral hemorrhage.</p><br>
<p>Most of Roosevelt&#39;s property was willed to Georgia Warm Springs Foundation, which gained control of all the properties in 1948 except for the Georgia Wilkins Cottage, which Wilkins lived in until her 1959 death. Both John F. Kennedy in 1960 and Jimmy Carter in 1976 used the property for their campaigns to become president; Carter even launched his campaign there.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<p>Today, the Little White House is part of Georgia&#39;s state park system and is open to visitors. It has been preserved and is as it was the day Roosevelt died. All buildings and furnishings are original to the house and property. Items on display, besides the Unfinished Portrait, include his customized 1938 Ford convertible and his stagecoach.</p><br>
<p>On August 9, 2011, the McCarthy Cottage and the E.T. Curtis Cottage on the Roosevelt Institute Hospital grounds that date back to Roosevelt&#39;s time at Warm Springs were destroyed in a fire which investigators believed had been started by lightning and thunderstorms that were in the area at the time.</p><br>
<h3>The Little White House</h3><br>
<h3>Memorial Museum</h3><br>
<h3>Warm Springs Pools</h3><br>
<p>The Lahontan Dam is a dam situated on the Carson River in the Carson Desert between Carson City, Nevada and Fallon, Nevada in the United States. Its impoundment is known as the Lahontan Reservoir or Lake Lahontan. It is currently operated by the Truckee-Carson Irrigation District.</p><br>
<p>The Lahontan Dam was built by the Bureau of Reclamation as part of the Newlands Project. It is an earthen structure, 162 ft high by 1,700 ft long and contains 733,000 cubic yards of fill. When it was completed in 1915, it was the largest earth-fill dam in the United States. The reservoir receives water from an area of 1,450 square miles and provides a storage capacity of 295,500 acrefeet at spillway crest. An additional 23,900 acrefeet can be stored by raising the gates, bringing the total capacity to 319,400 acrefeet.</p><br>
<p>The primary purpose of the dam is to impound water for irrigation use. The site also includes hydroelectric generators with a total capacity of 4,000 kilowatts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction began as part of the Truckee-Carson Project in 1911 and Lahontan City, Nevada, a company town, was built for the workers. Water distribution for irrigation began in 1916 and in the same year the project was renamed to the Newlands Project.</p><br>
<p>The Sheldon Museum of Art is an art museum in the city of Lincoln, in the state of Nebraska in the Midwestern United States. Its collection focuses on 19th- and 20th-century art.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Sheldon Art Association</h3><br>
<p>In 1888, The Sheldon Art Association was founded as the Haydon Art Club. It got its name in honor of the British painter, Benjamin Robert Haydon. The Haydon Art Club held an annual art exhibit and supplied art education to the university. In the early 1900s, the club underwent a reorganization and was incorporated under its new name, the Nebraska Art Association.</p><br>
<p>The Sheldon Art Association is a non-profit organization that has over 500 members.</p><br>
<h3>Sheldon Museum of Art</h3><br>
<p>The Sheldon Museum of Art was initially known as the University of Nebraska Art Galleries, and was then formerly known as Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery. The museum&#39;s name was changed in 2008, along with the support organization that supports the museum, which is now known as the Sheldon Art Association, formerly the Nebraska Art Association.</p><br>
<h2>Building</h2><br>
<p>The museum exhibited its collection in locations around the university, including Morrill Hall, until a dedicated building was completed in 1963. Located at the junction of 12th and R Streets, on the city campus of the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, the Sheldon was designed by architect Philip Johnson and is a USA National Register of Historic Places. The building&#39;s other distinctive features are a great hall with golden disks suspended from the ceiling, a spacious Great Hall, and a bridge-type grand staircase.</p><br>
<p>In 1959, Phillip Johnson proclaimed the Sheldon as the best building he had ever designed. As part of Johnson&#39;s artist statement, he said of the Sheldon “oday the museum building stands as a community like the church courthouse of the last century. The architect must therefore create, inside and out, a symbolic structure which the community can refer to with some pride … The symbolic function of the Sheldon Gallery is fulfilled, I feel, not only the ‘classical’ exterior of travertine but mainly by the great hall which orients the visitor, as well as elevating his spirits.” The museum was designed with the idea of avoiding what he referred to as “museum fatigue”. This is the idea that visitors to museums often feel alienated from the museum environment. This is a result of the freedom which he was given to him by the art association and its first director, Norman Geske.</p><br>
<p>The building was funded by a gift of Frances Sheldon and her brother A. Bromley Sheldon. The building was funded by two bequests by Frances Sheldon of $921,660 and her brother, A. Bromley Sheldon or $675,000. The Sheldon family owned a number of farms and a lumber yard in Lexington, Nebraska. The building features Roman travertine, which is a type of limestone. For many decades one of the key features of the great hall was an installation by Japanese-American sculptor, Isamu Noguchi, called “Song of the Bird.” He was invited to create and install a work as part of the building&#39;s opening ceremonies in May 1963.</p><br>
<h2>Leadership</h2><br>
<p>1956-1993: Norman Geske</p><br>
<p>1983-1999: George Neubert</p><br>
<p>2001-2008: Janice Driesbach</p><br>
<p>2008-2014: Jorge Daniel Veneciano</p><br>
<p>2014-2023: Wally Mason</p><br>
<p>2023-present: Susan Longhenry</p><br>
<p>In 1956, Norman Geske was the first director of the Sheldon Museum of Art, and is widely credited with establishing the Sheldon&#39;s modern art collection, as well as other regional cultural programs and institutions like Interstate 80 Bicentennial Sculpture Project, the Museum of Nebraska Art in Kearney and the Mary Riepma Ross Media Arts Center, originally known as the Sheldon Film Theater.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, Wally Mason, the former director and chief curator at Haggerty Museum of Art from Marquette University in Milwaukee, became director of the Sheldon.</p><br>
<h2>Collections</h2><br>
<p>The Sheldon houses both the Sheldon Art Association collection (founded in 1888 as the Haydon Art Club), and the University of Nebraska collection, initiated in 1929. Together they comprise more than 12,000 works of art in all media. This comprehensive collection of American art includes prominent holdings of 19th-century landscape and still life, American Impressionism, early Modernism, Geometric abstraction, Abstract Expressionism, Pop art, Lyrical Abstraction, Color Field painting, Minimalism and Contemporary Art. In April 1965, "Golden Age", a painting by Benjamin West was stolen and recovered by the FBI. Charged in the incident was a student from the University of Nebraska.</p><br>
<h3>Sculpture garden</h3><br>
<p>In the sculpture garden, more than 30 monumental sculptures are exhibited year-round. Among them are works by Gaston Lachaise, Jacques Lipchitz, Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, David Smith, Lyman Kipp, William G. Tucker, Bryan Hunt, Mark di Suvero, Michael Heizer, and Richard Serra. When the sculpture gardens first installations occurred, they were sometimes controversial. A woman once called a secretary and complained “I think Norman Geske should be fired, and whats more, he should be asked to leave the state because of all the junk he&#39;s introduced into the sunken garden south of the gallery.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, Man in the Open Air, a 1915 bronze sculpture by Elie Nadelman, was stolen from the sculpture garden. Police speculated that it had been taken in the course of post-game revelry following the university football teams victory in the 1998 Orange Bowl. About a week later, it was recovered on the universitys East Campus. The gallerys director hypothesized that the thief or thieves had been unaware of the works value, estimated at over $500,000, and, after learning this, had placed it where it would be discovered by security guards during their rounds. Following $15,000 in restoration and repair, the sculpture was put on display inside the building.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibitions</h2><br>
<p>The Sheldons exhibition program comprises approximately 20 exhibitions per year and focuses on American art in all media. The curatorial staff organizes exhibitions drawn from the permanent collection, many of which circulate nationally. The program also includes exhibitions organized by peer institutions throughout the United States. Educational programs such as symposia, lectures, childrens workshops and tours are organized in conjunction with each exhibition.</p><br>
<p>The Ward W. Willits House is a home designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Designed in 1901, the Willits house is considered one of the first of the great Prairie School houses. Built in the Chicago suburb of Highland Park, Illinois, the house presents a symmetrical facade to the street. One of the more interesting points about the structure is Wright&#39;s ability to seamlessly combine architecture with nature. The plan is a cruciate with four wings extending out from a central fireplace. In addition to stained-glass windows and wooden screens that divide rooms, Wright also designed the furniture for the house.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>The Willits House is one of Wrights first true Prairie-style houses; as such, it is the culmination of the period of experimentation that Wright engaged in the previous few years. This house was designed for Ward Winfield Willits in 1901, who was then vice-president of Adams and Westlake Company, a brass foundry of which he was later made president. Orlando Giannini, who was employed by Willits at the time, may have been responsible for the creation of this house as he introduced Wright to Willits. Wright was known for bridging the gap between architecture and nature, which makes this house fascinating because it is a full expression of Wrights interest in reconnecting with nature and Wright&#39;s equal interest in Japanese architecture and the Dutch art movement that was simultaneously occurring.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The Willits House is the first house in true Prairie style and marks the full development of Wrights wood frame and stucco system of construction. Although the Willits House has two stories, it is a more complex shape, consisting of a rectangular central space with a rectangular wing projecting from each side of that space. This is a standard design feature for most prairie-style houses, in addition to low roofs, elements that run parallel to the ground and extend out beyond the frame of the house. Wright used a cruciform plan with the interior space flowing around a central chimney core and extending outward onto covered verandas and open terraces. The plan of the house is a windmill style, as seen with the four wings extending from the fireplace in the central core and the movement from each wing being along a diagonal line. Wing two contains the great living room with high windows and a walled terrace. The dining room, extended by a large porch, comprises the third wing; the fourth, towards the rear of the house, contains the kitchen and servants quarters. Wright incorporates diagonals into several other places in his design – the dining room has a prow-shaped end bay and another prow-shaped projection, the reception room has a similar prow-shaped bay, the art glass light over the entry stairway is rotated 45 degrees, again emphasizing the diagonal, and the terminating piers of the porte cochere are offset from the end wall by 45 degrees.</p><br>
<p>The first floor contains the living room that faces the street, the dining room, kitchen, pantry, servants&#39; quarters, reception, porte cochere, veranda, and terrace. The first floor also contains several fireplaces that are clustered together. An entrance-stair hall, living room, dining room and kitchen rotate around the central fireplace. The plan of the house begins to open up and the rooms are linking much more strongly outward. The house is less contained and architecture that moved outwards was one of the main features. Moving to the second floor of the house, it contains five bedrooms, a sewing room and a library over the south entrance. Instead of continuing the west bedroom (directly over the living room) the full width of the wing, Wright left space for second-floor side porches and urns.</p><br>
<p>The Willits House was seen as an entertainment-style home. The use of the Romanesque archway in the entrance, an emphasis on horizontals as seen in the low roofs of the dining room wing and porte cochere and the use of different trim materials in the upper part of the house. When light shines on this area, the roof appears to be hovering and displays very deep and dark shadows. Another unique feature of this house is that Wright was able to design everything in the house, from the furniture to the lighting fixtures.</p><br>
<h2>Architect-client relationship</h2><br>
<p>Wright and the Willitss became friends soon after meeting and realizing that with Wrights architectural expertise and Willitss company making contributions to many architectural projects, a vision for the Ward Willits House was possible. The client and architect continued their relationship after the house was completed, and Willits and his wife accompanied Frank Lloyd Wright and his first wife, Catherine (Tobin) Wright, on a trip to Japan in 1905. The trip went well and was a first for Wright; however, the relationship could not withstand the hardships that occur by being an architect and having a strong relationship with ones client. The clients were wealthy and had enough money to have the house built—although their friendship barely survived the ill treatment of Wright&#39;s first wife and family and unpaid loans Wright is said to have had with Willits, eventually repaid with sales of some of the many Japanese prints acquired on the trip. Nonetheless, Ward Willits spent many years with his wife in the house and lived there until his death in 1950.</p><br>
<h2>Post-1954</h2><br>
<p>The house was purchased in 1983 and the new owner began renovations. The new owner and his wife mainly completed the work, focusing on returning the building to a point in time approximating 1909, and they made sure to maintain Wright&#39;s unique features throughout the house. The restoration was acknowledged by many to be Museum quality, and received a Driehaus award. The house still sits on the same site in Highland Park, Illinois and is a common attraction for those who want to view a piece of architectural history. The Frank Lloyd Wright "Tour of the North Shore" currently explores the northern suburbs of Chicago along Lake Michigan to see one dozen Frank Lloyd Wright houses, including the Ward Willits House.</p><br>
<p>Porto Bello was the hunting lodge of the last Royal Governor of the British Colony of Virginia, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore. The name commemorates the battle of Porto Bello, a 1739 British naval victory in Panama. Lord Dunmore fled to Porto Bello to escape the early stages of the American Revolution in Williamsburg, Virginia. He later boarded a British ship lying at anchor near Porto Bello in the York River.</p><br>
<p>Porto Bello is located in York County, Virginia on the grounds of Camp Peary. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, but is closed to visitors because of the restricted access to Camp Peary.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and Property History</h2><br>
<p>Porto Bello was a 2-story brick farmhouse owned by Lord Dunmore from 1773 to the late 1770s. It is located in central York County on a wooded hill north of Queen&#39;s Creek.</p><br>
<p>In a 1782 map, the building is shown to have five buildings, consisting of a residence, a kitchen, and three other much smaller outbuildings; however, it was written to have up to ten outbuildings while under the ownership of Dunmore including a large barn, cow houses, stables, and work shops.</p><br>
<p>The complex, despite its size, was never truly used as a permanent residence, and it was instead used as a hunting lodge or retreat.</p><br>
<p>Although usually considered the actual house occupied by Lord Dunmore, the house exhibits properties that resemble features of houses built in the early 1800s. Instead, a geographic depression north of the structure may be the site of the earlier house. In 1915, the modern house had an internal fire that left everything decimated but the walls. As a result of the fire, the roof was replaced from a gambrel roof to a mansard roof and the interior plan was changed.</p><br>
<p>The original plan, remembered by a former occupant, was described as having two floors each with two rooms. In the center was a chimney. Between the chimney and the front wall was an entrance hall, and behind it were stairs to the second floor.</p><br>
<p>The date of construction of the house was never written, but it was known to have been constructed in or before 1774.</p><br>
<h2>Significance and Ownership History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest known owner of the land that would become Porto Bello was John James Hullotte. In 1758, the York County court ordered that Hullotte give back gambling money that he had gained. Hullotte refused and his land was repossessed and given to Alexander Finnie, the man whom he owed money to. Finnie died 11 years later, in 1769. The land was then auctioned off to John Prentis in December. Prentis then, for reasons unknown, conveyed Porto Bello to William and Rachel Drummond in November 1770.</p><br>
<p>William Drummond died in 1773 and it was bought by Lord Dunmore some time later that year after a short controversy with Drummond&#39;s wife who accused him of interfering with the sale of the property.</p><br>
<p>Lord Dunmore retained ownership of the house for the next two years despite only utilizing it as his retreat or hunting lodge.</p><br>
<p>In early 1775, Virginians began to organize militia companies and equip themselves. Lord Dunmore, who was a loyalist and sought to end the growing resistance, ordered Lieutenant Henry Collins to take the guns within the Williamsburg Magazine and place them on the British armed schooner Magdalen. The Virginian populous, angry with the distrust and loyalty of Dunmore, grew to rebellion and Patrick Henry placed a militia outside of Williamsburg on May 2. Dunmore then fled to Porto Bello and then to the HMS Fowey.</p><br>
<p>Two months later, on July 7, Dunmore returned to Porto Bello, but was quickly chased out by a group of irate citizens from Williamsburg whom he narrowly avoided. he never returned to Porto Bello.</p><br>
<p>After Lord Dunmore fled, the Virginian authorities rented the land to a Dr. James Carter until 1779 when the county escheator sold it to a man named Francis Bright. The Bright family owned the property for about half to three quarters of a century. After Francis Bright died sometime in the early 1800s, his son, Samuel Bright, gained the property until he died in the mid-1800s.</p><br>
<p>The property was owned by multiple people for the rest of the nineteenth century, and was owned by the Mahone family in 1915 when a fire gutted the property. Later, the property was sold to the United States Federal Government in the beginning of World War 2 for the construction of Camp Peary.</p><br>
<p>Graceland Cemetery is a large historic garden cemetery located in the north side community area of Uptown, in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Established in 1860, its main entrance is at the intersection of Clark Street and Irving Park Road. Among the cemetery&#39;s are the burial sites of several well-known Chicagoans.</p><br>
<p>Graceland includes a naturalistic reflecting lake, surrounded by winding pathways, and its pastoral plantings have led it to become a certified arboretum of more than 2,000 trees. The cemetery&#39;s wide variety of burial monuments include a number designed by famous architects, several of whom are also buried in the cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Establishment</h3><br>
<p>Thomas Barbour Bryan, a Chicago businessman, established Graceland Cemetery in 1860 with the original layout designed by Swain Nelson. Bryan created it though a business partnership with William Butler Ogden, Sidney Sawyer, Edwin H. Sheldon, and George Peter Alexander Healy. Bryan was the inaugural president of the Graceland Cemetery Association, with Healy serving as treasurer.</p><br>
<p>Bryan had been motivated to establish a new cemetery after being disappointed by the "neglected and actually repulsive condition" of Chicagos City Cemetery when his son Daniel was buried there. He sought to create a "rural burying ground, more remote from and worthy of the city." However, he placed these ambitions on hold after Rosehill Cemetery was opened by a group independent of Bryans efforts. However, after he was offered the presidency of the company that operated Rosehill Cemetery, Bryan became motivated to pursue his shelved plans to establish his own cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Bryan purchased land for his cemetery from the heirs of Justin Butterfield, collaborated with a number of landscape architects to design the cemetery, and fought challenges from the owners of adjacent properties who opposed his plans to transform the site into a cemetery. In April 1860, Graceland Cemetery was formally dedicated that August.</p><br>
<h3>19th century operations</h3><br>
<p>Daniel Page Bryans disinterment from City Cemetery was an early part of the a greater process of relocating the thousands of remains at the City Cemetery and transforming that site into a public park (todays Lincoln Park). The remains of approximately 2,000 individuals were relocated in this process, which was completed in the 1870s. Graceland and Rosehill were the reburial sites of many of these remains. Graceland quickly established itself as a popular choice of burial site for prominent Chicagoans, with many opting to pre-erect burial monuments at the cemetery in for their future burials. In 1870, Horace Cleveland designed curving paths, open vistas, and a small lake to create a park-like setting.</p><br>
<p>In 1878, Bryan hired his nephew Bryan Lathrop as president. In 1879, the cemetery acquired an additional 35 acre, and Ossian Cole Simonds was hired as its landscape architect to design the addition. Lathrop and Simonds wanted to incorporate naturalistic settings to create picturesque views that were the foundation of the Prairie style. Lathrop was open to new ideas and provided opportunities for experimentation which led to Simonds use of native plants including oak, ash, witch hazel, and dogwood at a time when many viewed native plants as invasive. The Graceland Cemetery Association designated one section of the grounds to be devoid of monuments and instituted a review process led by Simonds for monuments and family plots. Simonds later became the superintendent at Graceland until 1897, and continued on as a consultant until his death in 1931.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Gracelands attractive parklike appearance and elaborate burial monuments made it a popularly visited site. Visitation became so large, that in the early 20th century its operators grew concerned that it had turned into too popular of a recreation grounds to the detriment of its character as a cemetery. For a period, it instituted a policy in which open admission to the grounds was only permitted on Sundays and holidays, with the remaining dates seeing access limited to ticket holders. Gracelands popularity as a pleasure grounds declined in subsequent decades, however, as public attitude moved away from seeing cemeteries as appropriate sites for leisure. At the same time, the condition of the cemetery began to suffer from neglect.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>In the early 21st century, attention was turned to repair the cemetery and restore much of its 19th-century landscape. Graceland Cemetery was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 18, 2001.</p><br>
<p>In 2020, the cemetery&#39;s landscape was damaged in a derecho (severe windstorm) that uprooted 50 mature trees. The cemetery was closed for several weeks thereafter to clean up the damage. Young trees were planted to replace the mature trees that were lost.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Graceland Cemetery is an example of a rural cemetery, which is a style of cemetery characterized by landscaped natural areas. The concept of the rural cemetery emerged in the early 19th century as a response to overcrowding and poor maintenance in existing cemeteries in Europe.</p><br>
<p>In the 19th century, a train to the north suburbs occupied the eastern edge of the cemetery, where the Chicago "L" train now runs. The line was also used to carry mourners to funerals, in specially rented funeral cars. As a result, there was an entry through the east wall, which has since been closed. When founded, the cemetery was well outside the city limits of Chicago. After the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, Lincoln Park, which had been the city&#39;s cemetery, was deconsecrated and some of the bodies were reinterred to Graceland Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The edge of the pond around Daniel Burnham&#39;s burial island was once lined with broken headstones and coping transported from Lincoln Park. Lincoln Park was redeveloped as a recreational area. A single mausoleum remains, the "Couch tomb", containing the remains of Ira Couch. The Couch Tomb is probably the oldest extant structure in the city, everything else having been destroyed by the Great Chicago Fire.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery&#39;s walls are topped off with wrought iron spear point fencing.</p><br>
<h2>Notable tombs and monuments</h2><br>
<p>Many of the cemetery&#39;s tombs are of great architectural or artistic interest, including the Getty Tomb, the Martin Ryerson Mausoleum (both designed by architect Louis Sullivan, who is also buried in the cemetery), and the Schoenhofen Pyramid Mausoleum. The industrialist George Pullman was buried at night, in a lead-lined coffin within an elaborately reinforced steel-and-concrete vault, to prevent his body from being exhumed and desecrated by labor activists.</p><br>
<p>William Hulbert, the first president of the National League, has a monument in the shape of a baseball with the names of the original National League cities on it.</p><br>
<p>Along with its other famous burials, the cemetery is notable for two statues by the renowned Chicago sculptor Lorado Taft, Eternal Silence for the Graves family plot and The Crusader that marks Victor Lawson&#39;s final resting place.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is also the final resting place of 31 victims of the Iroquois Theatre fire, in which more than 600 people died.</p><br>
<p>Six-year-old Inez Briggs, the "girl in glass" is rumored to be a haunted site.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>David Adler, architect</p><br>
<p>Walter Webb Allport, dentist</p><br>
<p>John Peter Altgeld, Governor of Illinois</p><br>
<p>Amabel Anderson Arnold, organized the Woman&#39;s State Bar Association of Missouri, the first association of women lawyers in the world</p><br>
<p>Philip Danforth Armour, meat packing magnate</p><br>
<p>Ernie Banks, Chicago Cubs Hall of Fame baseball player</p><br>
<p>Frederic Clay Bartlett, artist, art collector</p><br>
<p>Granville Bates, American actor</p><br>
<p>Mary Hastings Bradley, author</p><br>
<p>Lorenz Brentano, member of the State House of Representatives, United States consul at Dresden, Congressional Representative for Illinois</p><br>
<p>Doug Buffone, Chicago Bears former linebacker, host WSCR</p><br>
<p>Daniel H. Burnham, architect</p><br>
<p>Fred A. Busse, mayor of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Justin Butterfield, attorney, land grant developer</p><br>
<p>Ronald Coase, economist</p><br>
<p>Lydia Avery Coonley, author</p><br>
<p>Oscar Stanton De Priest first African American in the 20th century to be elected to Congress.</p><br>
<p>William Deering, founder of Deering Harvester Company, which later became International Harvester Company, father of James and Charles Deering</p><br>
<p>James Deering, executive of Deering Harvester Company and original owner of the Villa Vizcaya estate</p><br>
<p>Charles Deering, executive of Deering Harvester Company, former chairman of International Harvester Company, and philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Augustus Dickens, brother of Charles Dickens (he died penniless in Chicago)</p><br>
<p>George Elmslie, architect</p><br>
<p>John Jacob Esher (1823–1901), Bishop of the Evangelical Association</p><br>
<p>Marshall Field, businessman, retailer, whose memorial was designed by Henry Bacon, with sculpture by Daniel Chester French</p><br>
<p>Bob Fitzsimmons, Heavyweight boxing champion, born in Cornwall, UK</p><br>
<p>Melville Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States</p><br>
<p>Elbert H. Gary, judge, chairman of USA Steel, namesake of Gary, Indiana.</p><br>
<p>Bruce A. Goff, architect</p><br>
<p>Sarah E. Goode, first African-American woman to receive a United States patent</p><br>
<p>Bruce Graham, co-architect of John Hancock building and Sears Tower (now called the Willis Tower)</p><br>
<p>Dexter Graves was an early pioneer in the city who arrived on the schooner Telegraph in the 1830s. His memorial by Lorado Taft is the statue Eternal Silence (also known as "the Dexter Graves Monument").</p><br>
<p>Richard T. Greener, first black graduate of Harvard (1870), first black professor at the University of South Carolina (1873–1877), administrator for the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial, and diplomat to Russia</p><br>
<p>Marion Mahony Griffin, architect</p><br>
<p>Carter Harrison, Sr., mayor of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Carter Harrison, Jr., mayor of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Joe Hill, labor activist, incinerated here, ashes scattered elsewhere</p><br>
<p>William Holabird, architect</p><br>
<p>Henry Honoré, businessman, father of Bertha Honoré Palmer, father-in-law of Potter Palmer</p><br>
<p>William Hulbert, president of baseball&#39;s National League</p><br>
<p>Charles L. Hutchinson, banker, philanthropist and founding president of the Art Institute of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Isadore Gilbert Jeffery (1840-1919), poet</p><br>
<p>William Le Baron Jenney, architect, Father of the American skyscraper</p><br>
<p>Elmer C. Jensen, "The Dean of Chicago Architects"</p><br>
<p>Jack Johnson, first African-American heavyweight boxing champion</p><br>
<p>William Johnson, educator who served as superintendent of Chicago Public Schools</p><br>
<p>John and Mary Richardson Jones, husband-and-wife abolitionists and activists</p><br>
<p>Fazlur Khan, co-architect of John Hancock building and Sears Tower (now called the Willis Tower)</p><br>
<p>William Wallace Kimball, Kimball Piano and Organ Company</p><br>
<p>John Kinzie, Canadian pioneer, early white settler in the city of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Cornelius Krieghoff, Canadian artist</p><br>
<p>Bryan Lathrop, businessman, philanthropist, and longtime president of the cemetery</p><br>
<p>Robert Henry Lawrence Jr., first African American astronaut (cremated at Graceland, but not physically buried there)</p><br>
<p>Victor F. Lawson, editor and publisher of the Chicago Daily News</p><br>
<p>Agnes Lee, poet and translator</p><br>
<p>Li Fu Lee, first Chinese woman to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology</p><br>
<p>Frank Lowden, Governor of Illinois</p><br>
<p>Franklin H. Martin, physician</p><br>
<p>Alexander C. McClurg, bookseller and Civil War general</p><br>
<p>Cyrus McCormick, businessman, inventor</p><br>
<p>Edith Rockefeller McCormick, Daughter-in-law of reaper inventor Cyrus McCormick and one of the four adult children of John D. Rockefeller</p><br>
<p>Katherine Dexter McCormick, Daughter-in-law of reaper inventor Cyrus McCormick, MIT grad, biologist, suffragist, philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Maryland Mathison Hooper McCormick, second wife of Col. Robert R. McCormick</p><br>
<p>Nancy "Nettie" Fowler McCormick, businesswoman, philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Florence McLandburgh, writer</p><br>
<p>Joseph Medill, publisher, mayor of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, architect</p><br>
<p>Minnie Miñoso, Chicago White Sox Hall of Fame baseball player, Cuban-American baseball pioneer</p><br>
<p>László Moholy-Nagy, influential photographer, teacher, and founder of the New Bauhaus and Institute of Design IIT in Chicago</p><br>
<p>Dawn Clark Netsch, comptroller of Illinois, professor & spouse of architect Walter Netsch</p><br>
<p>Walter Netsch, architect</p><br>
<p>Richard Nickel, photographer, architectural historian and preservationist</p><br>
<p>Ruth Page, dancer and choreographer</p><br>
<p>Bertha Honoré Palmer, philanthropist</p><br>
<p>Francis W. Palmer, newspaper printer, USA Representative, Public Printer of the United States</p><br>
<p>Potter Palmer, businessman</p><br>
<p>Allan Pinkerton, detective, progenitor of the Secret Service</p><br>
<p>William Henry Powell, Medal of Honor recipient</p><br>
<p>George Pullman, inventor and railway industrialist</p><br>
<p>Wilhelm Rapp, newspaper editor</p><br>
<p>Hermann Raster, newspaper editor, politician and abolitionist</p><br>
<p>John Wellborn Root, architect</p><br>
<p>Howard Van Doren Shaw, architect</p><br>
<p>Washington Smith, pioneer wholesale grocer and philanthropist. The Washington and Jane Smith Home (now Smith Village) was named in his honor.</p><br>
<p>Louis Sullivan, architect</p><br>
<p>Charles Wacker, businessman and philanthropist, also director of the 1893 Columbian Exposition</p><br>
<p>Kate Warne, first female detective, Allan Pinkerton employee</p><br>
<p>Hempstead Washburne, mayor of Chicago</p><br>
<p>Frank Wenter, politician</p><br>
<p>Daniel Hale Williams, African-American surgeon who performed one of the first successful operations on the pericardium</p><br>
<p>George Ellery Wood, lumber baron. His home, built in 1885, on 2801 S. Prairie Ave. in Chicago, IL is a historical landmark</p><br>
<p>The First Baptist Meetinghouse, also known as the First Baptist Church in America is the oldest Baptist church congregation in the United States. The Church was founded in 1638 by Roger Williams in Providence, Rhode Island. The present church building was erected between 1774 and 1775 and held its first meetings in May 1775. It is located at 75 North Main Street in Providence&#39;s College Hill neighborhood. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960. It is affiliated with the American Baptist Churches USA.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Roger Williams had been holding religious services in his home for nearly a year before he converted his congregation into a Baptist church in 1638. This followed his founding of Providence in 1636. For the next sixty years, the congregation met in congregants&#39; homes, or outdoors in pleasant weather. Baptists in Rhode Island through most of the 17th century declined to erect meetinghouses because they felt such buildings reflected vanity. Eventually, however, they came to see the utility of some gathering place, and they erected severely plain-style meetinghouses like those of the Quakers.</p><br>
<p>Roger Williams was a Calvinist, but within a few years of its founding, the congregation became more Arminian, and was clearly a General Six-Principle Baptist church by 1652. It remained a General Baptist church until it migrated back to a variety of Calvinism under the leadership of James Manning in the 1770s. Following Williams as pastor of the church was Chad Brown, founder of the famous Brown family of Rhode Island. A number of the streets in Providence bear the names of pastors of First Baptist Church, including Williams, Brown, Gregory Dexter, Thomas Olney, William Wickenden, Manning, and Stephen Gano. In 1700, Pardon Tillinghast built the first church building, a 400 ft&sup2; structure, near the corner of Smith and North Main Streets. In 1711 he donated the building and land to the church in a deed describing the church as General Six-Principle Baptist in theology. In 1736 the congregation built its second meetinghouse on an adjoining lot at the corner of Smith and North Main Streets. This building was about 40 × 40 feet square (i.e.1,600 ft&sup2;).</p><br>
<p>When it was built in 1774–75, the current meetinghouse represented a dramatic departure from the traditional Baptist meetinghouse style. It was the first Baptist meetinghouse to have a steeple and bell, making it more like Anglican and Congregational church buildings. The builders were part of a movement among Baptists in the urban centers of Boston, Newport, New York, and Philadelphia to bring respectability and recognition to Baptists.</p><br>
<h3>Association with Brown University</h3><br>
<p>Central to the movement for greater recognition and growth was the creation of an educated ministry and the founding of a college. The Philadelphia Association of Baptist Churches sent Dr. James Manning to Rhode Island to found the college in the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (later renamed Brown University) in 1764. Beginning in Warren, the college then relocated to Providence in 1770. The college president, Manning, was also called to be the pastor of the Providence church in 1771. During his ministry the present Meeting House was erected "for the publick worship of Almighty God and also for holding commencement in." Subsequent Brown presidents Jonathan Maxcy and Francis Wayland also served as ministers at the church.</p><br>
<p>The Brown family that soon gave its name to the university were prominent members of the church, and descendants of its founders and those of the Rhode Island Colony (the second pastor of the congregation after Roger Williams was Chad Brown). Although the university is now secular, in honor of its history and tradition, the meetinghouse continues to be used, as it has been since 1776, as the site of Brown University&#39;s undergraduate commencement.</p><br>
<h3>Construction, alterations and designations</h3><br>
<p>Construction of the church began in the summer of 1774; at the time, the project was the largest building project ever attempted in New England. Due to the closure of the Massachusetts ports by the British as punishment for the Boston Tea Party, out-of-work ship builders and carpenters came to Providence to work on the meetinghouse. The main portion of the meetinghouse was dedicated in mid-May 1775, and the steeple erected in three and a half days in the first week of June.</p><br>
<p>Notable additions to the meetinghouse have included a Waterford crystal chandelier given by Hope Brown Ives (1792), a large pipe organ given by her brother Nicholas Brown Jr., the younger (1834); the addition of rooms for Sunday school, a fellowship hall, and offices on the lower level (1819–59), and an addition to the east end of the meetinghouse to accommodate an indoor baptistery (1884). The 1884 addition included a large stained glass window that was soon deemed inappropriate and shuttered over.</p><br>
<p>In 1957, John D. Rockefeller Jr. funded a restoration effort that removed Victorian additions to the building, returning much of the church&#39;s interior to its original appearance.</p><br>
<p>Notably absent from the interior is a gallery originally constructed on the church&#39;s western side for use by slaves and free black residents of Providence.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1960, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building was designed by astronomer and amateur architect Joseph Brown. Browns design borrowed significantly from the designs English architect James Gibbs published in his 1728 Book of Architecture. The churchs steeple, for example, is an exact execution of one of three unbuilt designs for the spire of St Martin-in-the-Fields.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>In addition to weekly worship services, the Meeting House hosts concerts, talks, and lectures by world-renowned artists, performers, academics, and elected officials. Brown University holds commencement services of its undergraduate college at the meetinghouse.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, History professor J. Stanley Lemons wrote a history of the church, entitled First: The History of the First Baptist Church in America</p><br>
<h2>Affiliations</h2><br>
<p>The First Baptist Church in America is affiliated with the American Baptist Churches of Rhode Island (ABCORI) and the American Baptist Churches USA (ABCUSA). The church actively supports the Rhode Island State Council of Churches, the National Council of Churches, the Baptist World Alliance, and the Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty. Many members have served in various denominational, academic, and divinity school positions, including the presidency of Brown University.</p><br>
<h2>Settled ministers (sometimes simultaneous pastorships)</h2><br>
<p>Roger Williams, 1638–39</p><br>
<p>Chad Brown, 1639 – before 1650</p><br>
<p>Thomas Olney, 1639–1652</p><br>
<p>William Wickenden, 1642–1670</p><br>
<p>Gregory Dexter, 1654–1700</p><br>
<p>Pardon Tillinghast, 1681–1718</p><br>
<p>Ebenezer Jenckes 1719–1726</p><br>
<p>James Colvin 1725–1755</p><br>
<p>James Brown 1726–1732</p><br>
<p>Samuel Winsor, 1733–1758</p><br>
<p>Thomas Burlingame 1733–1764</p><br>
<p>Samuel Winsor Jr, 1759–1771</p><br>
<p>James Manning, 1771–1791</p><br>
<p>John Stanford, 1788–1789</p><br>
<p>Jonathan Maxcy, 1791–1792</p><br>
<p>Stephen Gano MD, 1792–1828</p><br>
<p>Robert Pattison, 1830–36</p><br>
<p>William Hague, 1837–40</p><br>
<p>Robert Pattison, 1840–1842</p><br>
<p>James Granger, 1842–1857</p><br>
<p>Francis Wayland, 1857–1858</p><br>
<p>Samuel Caldwell, 1858–1873</p><br>
<p>Edward G. Taylor, 1875–1881</p><br>
<p>Thomas Edwin Brown, 1882–1890</p><br>
<p>Henry Melville King, 1891–1906</p><br>
<p>Elijah Abraham Hanley, 1907–1911</p><br>
<p>John F. Vichert, 1912–1916</p><br>
<p>Albert B. Cohoe, 1916–1920</p><br>
<p>Arthur W. Cleaves, 1922–1940</p><br>
<p>Albert C. Thomas, 1941–1954</p><br>
<p>Homer L. Trickett, 1955–1970</p><br>
<p>Robert G. Withers, 1971–1975</p><br>
<p>Richard D. Bausman, 1976–1982</p><br>
<p>Orland L. Tibbetts, 1983–1986</p><br>
<p>Dwight M. Lundgren, 1983–1996</p><br>
<p>Kate Harvey Penfield, 1987–1995</p><br>
<p>Clifford R. Hockensmith, 1997–1999</p><br>
<p>James C. Miller, 2000–2005</p><br>
<p>Dan Ivins, 2006–2014</p><br>
<p>Jamie P. Washam, 2015–</p><br>
<p>The Eastern Market is a public market in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Washington, D.C., housed in a 19th-century brick building. Eastern Market was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. It is located on 7th Street, S.E., a few blocks east of the USA Capitol between North Carolina Avenue SE and C Street SE. Badly damaged by an early-morning fire in 2007, the market building reopened in the summer of 2009 following an extensive renovation.</p><br>
<p>Eastern Market also marks a smaller community within the Capitol Hill neighborhood by serving as an anchor point for other nearby stores and restaurants. It is served by the nearby Washington Metro Eastern Market (station) on the Blue, Orange, and Silver Lines.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Eastern Market is part of ward 6 of DC&#39;s 8 wards. Nestled in what is known as the Capitol Hill neighborhood, this is the area bounded by North and South Capitol Streets on the west, 15th street on the east and H street on the north and by the Southeast southwest Freeway. Working adults, singles and families with young children largely populate the neighborhood of town houses. This is an old fashioned neighborhood where residents can do their shopping on a daily basis. Currently managed under the guidance of interim manager Barry Margeson. The flea market of Eastern Market has one of the most diverse markets in the nation. It hosts up to 100 exhibitors from five continents.</p><br>
<p>The market participates in a host of holiday and seasonal events to attract visitors, award prices and offer certificates and include those who live in the area into the community. Presently Eastern Market is being met with proposals for renovation. The goal of the renovation plan is to link 8th Street&#39;s Barracks Row and Eastern Market in order to create a community gathering space.</p><br>
<p>Beyond the Flea Market, Eastern Market is also known for its cultural attractions, which include the Folger Shakespeare Library and theater and the Library of Congress. Eastern Market&#39;s North Hall has been a premiere destination for hosting memorable events and can be rented for weddings and other occasions.</p><br>
<p>Eastern Market has been featured in scenes of movies including Body of Lies (2008) and Mercury Rising (1998).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Original market</h3><br>
<p>The first Eastern Market was one of three public marketplaces included in Pierre LEnfants plan for the city, to supplement existing markets in Alexandria and Georgetown. The plan also called for a Center Market and a Western Market. In 1805, Thomas Jefferson issued a proclamation calling for Eastern Market to be set up at 7th and L Streets SE, near the Navy Yard.</p><br>
<p>The original market received heavy fire damage during the British attack of 1814. It was repaired and remained active until the Civil War caused a disruption of supplies. During the war, farmers from southern Maryland set up their own marketplace on the opposite side of the Anacostia River. The market fell into disrepair, and was nearly abandoned. An 1871 newspaper account called it a "disgraceful shed."</p><br>
<h3>1873 relocation</h3><br>
<p>The current Eastern Market was designed by Adolf Cluss and was in continuous operation as a public market from 1873 until April 30, 2007. It was the first in a larger city-owned public market system, initiated to urbanize Washington, make orderly provision for the distribution of goods to its residents, and serve as a magnet to draw residents. The Market was expanded in 1908 with the addition of the Center and North Halls designed by Snowden Ashford. At the start of the 20th century, the Eastern Market was recognized as the unofficial "town center" of Capitol Hill. It is the last of the city&#39;s public markets still in operation.</p><br>
<p>The market nearly closed because of competition from grocery store chains and a decline in neighborhood investment. Local residents fought to keep it open, and the area has since been revitalized. Eastern Market continues to host a thriving farmers&#39; market. Fresh meats, baked goods and cheeses are sold from indoor stalls, and fresh produce is sold outside along the tent-covered sidewalk. Artisans and antiques dealers also sell their goods outside the market on weekends, making Eastern Market a popular stop for locals as well as tourists. The Market 5 Gallery organizes art shows, music and theater performances, and craft sales at the Eastern Market.</p><br>
<h3>2007 fire and aftermath</h3><br>
<p>Eastern Market was badly damaged by an early-morning 3-alarm fire on April 30, 2007. The heaviest damage was in the South Hall of the market, the portion occupied by vendors&#39; stalls, where the roof suffered a partial collapse. The Washington Post has described the South Hall as "gutted so badly that birds can now fly in through the front windows and out the back ones." Following the fire, Washington, D.C., Mayor Adrian Fenty promised to rebuild the market. The outdoor weekend market was disrupted but never closed. Many of the food vendors re-opened for business within weeks of the fire, selling their products outside of the building. In August 2007, the city completed a temporary market annex, known as the "East Hall," on the opposite side of 7th Street, on the grounds of Hine Junior High School. This housed the vendors until the reopening of the market building, with a ribbon-cutting on June 26, 2009. The Washington, D.C., Fire and Emergency Services Department determined officially that the fire originated outside of the Eastern Market between a dumpster and the exterior of the west wall, and that the fire was caused by an electrical failure on the electric supply wire for a nearby trash compactor. However, former D.C. fire investigators Gerald Pennington and Greg Bowyer have suggested the fire was deliberately set by suspect Joel Ramos.</p><br>
<p>Eastern Market reopened its doors on June 26, 2009, after two years of reconstruction work. On March 9, 2010, the renovation of the market received the Outstanding Project Award from the Structural Engineering Association of Metropolitan Washington in April. The Market has already received an "Honor Award" in the design category and has been recognized as a National Finalist by the American Counsel of Engineering Companies of Metropolitan Washington. The restoration process was a detailed and challenging effort to re-purpose and salvage various components of the critically damaged building. Among many innovative improvements, the historic roof was restored and state of the art equipment was installed. The design allowed the previously hidden historic skylight to be reintroduced as a prominent architectural feature of the new Eastern Market South Hall. Renovation was overseen by the Department of Real Estate Services and coordinated with Robert Silman Associates and Quinn Evans Architects. Mayor Adrian Fenty moved to have 7th Street, in front of the market, closed to vehicle traffic on the weekends to function as a "pedestrian plaza."</p><br>
<p>Saint Patricks Church is a Catholic parish in the Archdiocese of Dubuque, and is located at 15th and Iowa Streets, Dubuque, Iowa, United States. The church and rectory were included as contributing properties in the Jackson Park Historic District that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. St. Patricks Church is located two blocks away from St. Marys Church. The reason for the close proximity of the two parishes was that St. Mary was originally built for service to German families of Dubuque, and St. Patricks provided services for the Irish settlers to Dubuque.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The parish was founded in 1852 as a mission of St. Raphael Cathedral. The parish buildings were built on land that Bishop Mathias Loras had purchased when it was offered for sale by the Federal government. Originally, a wood-frame building was used as a church building, and was located at what is now the front of the rectory. The first church was dedicated by Bishop Loras in 1853. St. Patrick&#39;s became an independent parish five years later when the Rev. Patrick McCabe was assigned as the first resident pastor. The cornerstone of the present brick church was laid in 1877, and the building dedicated on August 15, 1878. In 1928, the Rev. J.J. Hanley remodeled and enlarged the church.</p><br>
<p>St. Patrick Church was originally built for service to the Irish settlers of Dubuque and while the parish has maintained a healthy respect for its Irish heritage over its many years of service, the parish now specializes in service to the Hispanic residents of Dubuque. The parish offers a Spanish Mass on Sundays, and the offices of Hispanic ministry are also located at the parish. From 1995 to 2008 a pastoral administrator led the St. Patricks congregation. During that same time, from 1999 to 2010, St. Patricks was clustered with St. Marys Parish. St. Marys closed in May 2010 and St. Patricks was clustered with St. Raphaels Cathedral at that time.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>St. Patrick&#39;s Church was designed by Dubuque architect John Keenan in the Gothic Revival style. It is a brick structure built on a Dubuque stone foundation. It features a central tower that is capped with a crown. The main entrance has been altered in subsequent years, but it fits in with the older structure. The church building is seven bays long with the seventh bay on the south end forming a sort of transept. The bays are divided by brick buttresses and each bay contains a paired lancet window. The interior is divided into three naves.</p><br>
<p>The rectory was built in the 1880s to the rear of the church. It is a three-story brick residence capped with a mansard roof. The original porch has been replaced with a single-story addition. Other additions have also been added on the west side of the house.</p><br>
<p>A school building, no longer extant, was built immediately west of the church. It was replaced by a three-story structure in 1951 on the corner of West 15th and Main Streets. The parish sold the building in 2006. It is not considered an historic structure.</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>St. Patricks Parish had a parochial school for boys established after 1870, while girls attended St. Joseph Academy. St. Patricks School merged with St. Mary&#39;s Catholic School to form Downtown Catholic School in 1982. The organization Holy Family Catholic Schools took control of Downtown Catholic and other Dubuque-area Catholic schools in 2001. Downtown Catholic and Sacred Heart – Holy Trinity School became St. Francis School in 2002, and St. Francis closed in 2004. Four Oaks Family and Children Services bought the school building in 2006.</p><br>
